Power generation systems and methods regarding same

ABSTRACT

A power source that provides at least one of thermal and electrical power and method of use thereof such as direct electricity or thermal to electricity is provided that powers a power system comprising (i) at least one reaction cell comprising a fuel having atomic hydrogen, nascent H2O; and a material to cause the fuel to be highly conductive, (iii) at least one set of electrodes that confine the fuel and an electrical power source that provides a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to initiate a reaction and an energy gain, (iv) a product recovery systems such as a condensor, (v) a reloading system, (vi) at least one of hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical systems to regenerate the fuel from the reaction products, (vii) a heat sink that accepts the heat from the power-producing reactions, (viii) a power conversion system.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.16/925,892, filed Jul. 10, 2020, which is a continuation of U.S.application Ser. No. 15/037,179, filed May 17, 2016, which is a 371 USNational Phase Application of PCT/IB2014/058177, filed Jan. 10, 2014,which claims priority to U.S. App. No. 61/924,697, filed Jan. 7, 2014,U.S. App. No. 61/919,496, filed Dec. 20, 2013, U.S. App. No. 61/911,932,filed Dec. 4, 2013, U.S. App. No. 61/909,216, filed Nov. 26, 2013, andU.S. App. No. 61/906,792, filed Nov. 20, 2013, each of which are herebyincorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

FIELD OF DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation and, inparticular, to systems, devices, and methods for the generation ofpower. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure aredirected to power generation devices and systems, as well as relatedmethods, which produce plasma and thermal power and produces electricalpower via a plasma to electric power converter or a thermal to electricpower converter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosuredescribe systems, devices, and methods that use the ignition of a wateror water-based fuel source to generate mechanical power and/or thermalenergy. Furthermore, the present disclosure is directed toelectrochemical power systems that generate electrical power and/orthermal energy. These and other related embodiments are described indetail in the present disclosure.

BACKGROUND

Power generation can take many forms, harnessing the power from plasma.Successful commercialization of plasma may depend on power generationsystems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then capturing thepower of the plasma produced.

Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels caninclude water or water-based fuel source. During ignition, a plasmacloud of super-heated electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high-energyparticles are ejected outwards. The highest energy particles ejected arethe hydrogen ions that can transfer kinetic energy to a plasma toelectric converter of the present disclosure.

Power can also be generated through the use of a system or device thatharnesses energy from the ignition of a fuel in a reaction vessel orcombustion chamber. As above, these fuels can include water orwater-based fuel source. Examples of such a system or device includeinternal combustion engines, which typically include one or moremechanisms for compressing a gas and mixing the gas with a fuel. Thefuel and gas are then ignited in a combustion chamber. Expansion of thecombustion gases applies a force to a moveable element, such as a pistonor turbine blade. The high pressures and temperatures produced by theexpanding combustion gases move the piston or blade, producingmechanical power.

Internal combustion engines can be classified by the form of thecombustion process and by the type of engine using that combustionprocess. Combustion processes can include reciprocating, rotary, andcontinuous combustion. Different types of reciprocating combustionengines include two-stroke, four-stroke, six-stroke, diesel, Atkinsoncycle, and Miller cycle. The Wankel engine is a type of rotary engine,and continuous combustion includes gas turbine and jet engines. Othertypes of these engines can share one or more features with the types ofengines listed above, and other variants of engines are contemplated bythose skilled in the art. These can include, for example, a motorjetengine.

Reciprocating engines usually operate cycles with multiple strokes. Anintake stroke can draw one or more gases into a combustion chamber. Afuel is mixed with the gas and a compression stroke compresses the gas.The gas-fuel mixture is then ignited, which subsequently expands,producing mechanical power during a power stroke. The product gases arethen expelled from the combustion chamber during an exhaust stroke. Thewhole cycle then repeats. By balancing a single piston or using multiplepistons, the process can provide continuous rotational power.

The different types of reciprocating engines generally operate with theabove cycle, with some modifications. For example, instead of thefour-stroke cycle described above, a two-stroke engine combines theintake and compression strokes into one stroke, and the expansion andexhaust processes into another stroke. Unlike a four or two strokeengine, the diesel engine does away with a spark plug and uses heat andpressure alone to ignite the air-fuel mixture. The Atkinson engine usesa modified crankshaft to provide more efficiency, while the Miller cycleoperates with a supercharger and a modified compression stroke.

Instead of piston strokes, the Wankel engine uses a rotor that rotatesasymmetrically within a combustion chamber. Rotation of the rotor,usually triangular in shape, past an intake port draws gas into thecombustion chamber. As the rotor rotates, asymmetric movement compressesthe gas, which is then ignited in a different section of the combustionchamber. The gases expand into a different section of the combustionchamber as the rotor continues its rotation. Finally the rotor expelsthe exhaust gases via an outlet port, and the cycle begins again.

Continuous combustion engines include gas turbines and jet engines thatuse turbine blades to produce mechanical power. As with the enginesdescribed above, a gas is initially compressed and fuel is then added tothe compressed gas. The mixture is then combusted and allowed to expandas it passes through the turbine blades, which rotates a shaft. Theshaft can drive a propeller, a compressor, or both. Different types ofcontinuous combustion include, e.g., industrial gas turbines, auxiliarypower units, compressed air storage, radial gas turbines, microturbines,turbojets, turbofans, turboprops, turboshafts, propfans, ramjet, andscramjet engines.

Other types of engines are also powered by an ignition process, asopposed to the engines described above that rely of deflagration.Deflagration releases heat energy via subsonic combustion, whiledetonation is a supersonic process. For example, pulsejet and pulsedetonation engines use a detonation process. These types of enginesoften have few moving parts and are relatively simple in operation.Generally, a fuel and gas mixture is drawn into a combustion chamber viaopen valves, which are then shut, and the mixture is reacted, producingthrust. The valves then open and fresh fuel and gas displace the exhaustgases, and the process is repeated. Some engines use no valves, but relyinstead on engine geometry to achieve the same effect. The repeatedreactions cause a pulsatile force.

Power can also be generated through the use of an electrochemical powersystem, which can generate power in the form of electrical power and/orthermal energy. Such electrochemical power systems typically includeelectrodes and reactants that cause an electron flow, which is thenharnessed.

SUMMARY

The present disclosure describes in detail many systems for generatingvarious forms of power. In one embodiment, the present disclosure isdirected to an electrochemical power system that generates at least oneof electricity and thermal energy comprising a vessel, the vesselcomprising

at least one cathode;

at least one anode;

at least one bipolar plate, and

reactants comprising at least two components chosen from:

-   -   a) at least one source of H2O;    -   b) a source of oxygen;    -   c) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising at        least one of the group chosen from nH, O, O2, OH, OH—, and        nascent H2O, wherein n is an integer, and    -   d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;

one or more reactants to form at least one of the source of catalyst,the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen,and

one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen,

the electrochemical power system further comprising an electrolysissystem and an anode regeneration system.

In another embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to a powersystem that generates at least one of direct electrical energy andthermal energy comprising:

at least one vessel;

reactants comprising:

-   -   a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising        nascent H2O;    -   b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;    -   c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and

at least one set of electrodes to confine the hydrino reactants,

a source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-currentelectrical energy;

a reloading system;

at least one system to regenerate the initial reactants from thereaction products, and

at least one direct plasma to electricity converter and at least onethermal to electric power converter.

In a further embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to anelectrochemical power system comprising a vessel, the vessel comprising

at least one cathode;

at least one anode;

at least one electrolyte;

at least two reactants chosen from:

-   -   a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising        nascent H₂O;    -   b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;    -   c) at least one of a source of a conductor, a source of a        conductive matrix, a conductor, and a conductive matrix; and

at least one current source to produce a current comprising at least oneof a high ion and electron current chosen from an internal currentsource and an external current source;

wherein the electrochemical power system generates at least one ofelectricity and thermal energy.

In an additional embodiment, the present disclosure is directed to awater arc plasma power system comprising: at least one closed reactionvessel; reactants comprising at least one of source of H₂O and H₂O; atleast one set of electrodes; a source of electrical power to deliver aninitial high breakdown voltage of the H₂O and provide a subsequent highcurrent, and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generatesarc plasma, light, and thermal energy.

In further embodiments, the present disclosure is directed to amechanical power system comprising:

at least one piston cylinder of an internal combustion-type engine;

a fuel comprising:

-   -   a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising        nascent H₂O;    -   b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen;    -   c) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix;

at least one fuel inlet with at least one valve;

at least one exhaust outlet with at least one valve;

at least one piston;

at least one crankshaft;

a high current source, and

at least two electrodes that confine and conduct a high current throughthe fuel.

Certain embodiments of the present discolosure are directed to a powergeneration system comprising: an electrical power source of at leastabout 2,000 A/cm²; a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to theelectrical power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive asolid fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes is configured to deliverelectrical power to the solid fuel to produce a plasma; and a plasmapower converter positioned to receive at least a portion of the plasma.Other embodiments are directed to a power generation system, comprising:a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loading region located between theplurality of electrodes and configured to receive a conductive fuel,wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply a current tothe conductive fuel sufficient to ignite the conductive fuel andgenerate at least one of plasma and thermal power; a delivery mechanismfor moving the conductive fuel into the fuel loading region; and aplasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert the plasma intoa non-plasma form of power or a thermal to electric or mechanicalconverter to convert the thermal power into a nonthermal form of powercomprising electricity or mechanical power. Further embodiments aredirected to a method of generating power, comprising: delivering anamount of fuel to a fuel loading region, wherein the fuel loading regionis located among a plurality of electrodes; igniting the fuel by flowinga current of at least about 2,000 A/cm² through the fuel by applying thecurrent to the plurality of electrodes to produce at least one ofplasma, light, and heat; receiving at least a portion of the plasma in aplasma-to-electric converter; converting the plasma to a different formof power using the plasma-to-electric converter; and outputting thedifferent form of power.

Additional embodiments are directed to a power generation system,comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; aplurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality ofelectrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electricallyconnected to the electrical power source, are configured to receive acurrent to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality ofelectrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and aplasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasmagenerated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.Additionally provided in the present disclosure is a power generationsystem, comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 2,000A/cm²; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality ofelectrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electricallyconnected to the electrical power source, are configured to receive acurrent to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality ofelectrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and aplasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasmagenerated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Another embodiments is directed to a power generation system,comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; aplurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of theplurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel loadingregion configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes so that the compressionmechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towards the fuelloading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electricallyconnected to the electrical power source and configured to supply powerto the fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; adelivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading region; anda plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from theignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Other embodimentsof the present disclosure are directed to a power generation system,comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A/cm²; aplurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein at least one of theplurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel loadingregion configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes so that the compressionmechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towards the fuelloading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes are electricallyconnected to the electrical power source and configured to supply powerto the fuel received in the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; adelivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel loading region; anda plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from theignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Embodiments of the present discolosure are also directed to powergeneration system, comprising: a plurality of electrodes; a fuel loadingregion surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured toreceive a fuel, wherein the plurality of electrodes is configured toignite the fuel located in the fuel loading region; a delivery mechanismfor moving the fuel into the fuel loading region; a plasma powerconverter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition ofthe fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a removal system for removinga byproduct of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operablycoupled to the removal system for recycling the removed byproduct of theignited fuel into recycled fuel. Certain embodiments of the presentdiscolosure are also directed to a power generation system, comprising:an electrical power source configured to output a current of at leastabout 2,000 A/cm²; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electricallyconnected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading regionconfigured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuelwhen received in the fuel loading region; a delivery mechanism formoving the fuel into the fuel loading region; a plasma-to-electric powerconverter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition ofthe fuel into electrical power; one or more output power terminalsoperably coupled to the plasma-to-electric power converter; and a powerstorage device.

Additional embodiments of the present discolosure are directed to apower generation system, comprising: an electrical power source of atleast 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electricallyconnected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading regionconfigured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuelwhen received in the fuel loading region; a delivery mechanism formoving the fuel into the fuel loading region; a plasma power converterconfigured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuelinto a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at leastone parameter associated with the power generation system; and acontroller configured to control at least a process associated with thepower generation system. Further embodiments are directed to a powergeneration system, comprising: an electrical power source of at least2,000 A/cm²; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electricallyconnected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading regionconfigured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuelwhen received in the fuel loading region; a delivery mechanism formoving the fuel into the fuel loading region; a plasma power converterconfigured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuelinto a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at leastone parameter associated with the power generation system; and acontroller configured to control at least a process associated with thepower generation system.

Certain embodiements of the present disclosure are directed to a powergeneration system, comprising: an electrical power source of at leastabout 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes electricallyconnected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading regionconfigured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuelwhen received in the fuel loading region, and wherein a pressure in thefuel loading region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for movingthe fuel into the fuel loading region; and a plasma-to-electric powerconverter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition ofthe fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Other embodiments are directedto a power generation system, comprising: an electrical power source ofat least about 2,000 A/cm²; a plurality of spaced apart electrodeselectrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel loadingregion configured to receive a fuel, wherein the fuel loading region issurrounded by the plurality of electrodes, and wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuelwhen received in the fuel loading region, and wherein a pressure in thefuel loading region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for movingthe fuel into the fuel loading region; and a plasma-to-electric powerconverter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition ofthe fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

Further embodiments are directed to a power generation cell, comprising:an outlet port coupled to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodeselectrically coupled to an electrical power source of at least 5,000 kW;a fuel loading region configured to receive a water-based fuelcomprising a majority H₂O, wherein the plurality of electrodes isconfigured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to produce at leastone of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configuredto convert at least a portion of at least one of the arc plasma and thethermal power into electrical power. Also disclosed is a powergeneration system, comprising: an electrical power source of at least5,000 A/cm²; a plurality of electrodes electrically coupled to theelectrical power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive awater-based fuel comprising a majority H₂O, wherein the plurality ofelectrodes is configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel toproduce at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a powerconverter configured to convert at least a portion of at least one ofthe arc plasma and the thermal power into electrical power.

Additional embodiments are directed to a method of generating power,comprising: loading a fuel into a fuel loading region, wherein the fuelloading region includes a plurality of electrodes; applying a current ofat least about 2,000 A/cm² to the plurality of electrodes to ignite thefuel to produce at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power;performing at least one of passing the arc plasma through aplasma-to-electric converter to generate electrical power; and passingthe thermal power through a thermal-to-electric converter to generateelectrical power; and outputting at least a portion of the generatedelectrical power. Also disclosed is a power generation system,comprising: an electrical power source of at least 5,000 kW; a pluralityof electrodes electrically coupled to the power source, wherein theplurality of electrodes is configured to deliver electrical power to awater-based fuel comprising a majority H2O to produce a thermal power;and a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of thethermal power into electrical power. In addition, another embodiment isdirected to a power generation system, comprising: an electrical powersource of at least 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes,wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes acompression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive awater-based fuel comprising a majority H2O, wherein the fuel loadingregion is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes so that thecompression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towardsthe fuel loading region, and wherein the plurality of electrodes areelectrically connected to the electrical power source and configured tosupply power to the water-based fuel received in the fuel loading regionto ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the water-based fuelinto the fuel loading region; and a plasma power converter configured toconvert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasmaform of power.

Certain embodiments of the present discolosure are directed to a systemfor producing mechanical power comprising: an electrical power source ofat least about 5,000 A; an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of plasma and thermal power; a fuel delivery device configuredto deliver a solid fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodescoupled to the electrical power source and configured to supply power tothe solid fuel to produce the at least one of plasma and thermal power;and a piston located within the ignition chamber and configured to moverelative to the ignition chamber to output mechanical power.

Additional embodiments are directed to a system for producing mechanicalpower, comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A;an ignition chamber configured to produce at least one of plasma andthermal power, wherein the ignition chamber includes an outlet port; afuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the ignitionchamber to produce at least one of the plasma and the thermal power; apair of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source and configuredto supply power to the ignition chamber; and a turbine in fluidcommunication with the outlet port and configured to rotate to outputmechanical power.

Further embodiments are directed to a system for producing mechanicalpower, comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A;an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein theimpeller includes a hollow region configured to produce at least one ofplasma and thermal power and the hollow region includes an intake portconfigured to receive a working fluid; a fuel delivery device configuredto deliver a solid fuel to the hollow region; and a pair of electrodescoupled to the electrical power source and configured to supply power tothe hollow region to ignite the solid fuel and produce at least one ofthe plasma and the thermal power.

Additional embodiments are directed to a system for producing mechanicalpower, comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A;a moveable element configured to rotate to output mechanical power,wherein the moveable element at least partially defines an ignitionchamber configured to produce at least one of plasma and thermal power;a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to theignition chamber; and a pair of electrodes coupled to the electricalpower source and configured to supply power to the solid fuel to produceat least one of the plasma and the thermal power.

Further embodiments are directed to a system for producing mechanicalpower comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A;a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of the plurality ofignition chambers is configured to produce at least one of plasma andthermal power; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a solid fuelto the plurality of ignition chambers; and a plurality of electrodescoupled to the electrical power source, wherein at least one of theplurality of electrodes is associated with at least one of the pluralityof ignition chambers and configured to supply electrical power to thesolid fuel to produce at least one of the plasma and the thermal power.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to a system forproducing mechanical power comprising: an electrical power source of atleast about 5,000 A; an ignition chamber configured to produce at leastone of arc plasma and thermal power; a fuel delivery device configuredto deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair ofelectrodes coupled to the electrical power source and configured tosupply power to the fuel to produce at least one of the arc plasma andthe thermal power; and a piston fluidly coupled to the ignition chamberand configured to move relative to the ignition chamber to outputmechanical power.

In addition, the present disclosure in directed to a system forproducing mechanical power comprising: an electrical power source of atleast about 5,000 A; an ignition chamber configured to produce at leastone of arc plasma and thermal power, wherein the ignition chamberincludes an outlet port; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver awater-based fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes coupledto the electrical power source and configured to supply power to thefuel to produce at least one of the arc plasma and the thermal power;and a turbine in fluid communication with the outlet port and configuredto rotate to output mechanical power.

Embodiments are also directed to a system for producing mechanicalpower, comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A;an impeller configured to rotate to output mechanical power, wherein theimpeller includes a hollow region configured to produce at least one ofarc plasma and thermal power and the hollow region includes an intakeport configured to receive a working fluid; a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a water-based fuel to the hollow region; and apair of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source and configuredto supply electrical power to the hollow region to ignite thewater-based fuel and produce at least one of the arc plasma and thermalpower.

The present disclosure is also directed to a system for producingmechanical power, comprising: an electrical power source of at leastabout 5,000 A; a plurality of ignition chambers, wherein each of theplurality of ignition chambers is configured to produce at least one ofarc plasma and thermal power; a fuel delivery device configured todeliver a water-based fuel to the plurality of ignition chambers; and aplurality of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source, whereinat least one of the plurality of electrodes is associated with at leastone of the plurality of ignition chambers and configured to supplyelectrical power to the water-based fuel to produce at least one of thearc plasma and the thermal power.

Also provided herein is an ignition chamber, comprising: a shelldefining a hollow chamber configured to create at least one of plasma,arc plasma, and thermal power; a fuel receptacle in fluid communicationwith the hollow chamber, wherein the fuel receptacle is electricallycoupled to a pair of electrodes; and a moveable element in fluidcommunication with the hollow chamber. Additionally disclosed is anignition chamber, comprising: a shell defining a hollow chamber; aninjection device in fluid communication with the hollow chamber, whereinthe injection device is configured to inject a fuel into the hollowchamber; a pair of electrodes electrically coupled to the hollow chamberand configured to supply electrical power to the fuel sufficient toproduce at least one of at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermalpower in the hollow chamber; and a moveable element in fluidcommunication with the hollow chamber.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to a method forproducing mechanical power comprising: delivering a solid fuel to anignition chamber; passing a current of at least about 5,000 A throughthe solid fuel and applying a voltage of less than about 10 V to thesolid fuel to ignite the solid fuel and produce at least one of plasmaand thermal power; mixing at least one of the plasma and the thermalpower with a working fluid; and directing the working fluid toward amoveable element to move the moveable element and output mechanicalpower.

Further embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to a methodfor producing mechanical power, comprising: delivering a water-basedfuel to an ignition chamber; passing a current of at least about 5,000 Athrough the water-based fuel and applying a voltage of at least about 2kV to the water-based fuel to ignite the water-based fuel to produce atleast one of arc plasma and thermal power; mixing at least one of thearc plasma and the thermal power with a working fluid; and directing theworking fluid toward a moveable element to move the moveable element andoutput mechanical power.

A method for producing mechanical power is also disclosed comprising:supplying a solid fuel to an ignition chamber; supplying at least about5,000 A to an electrode electrically coupled to the solid fuel; ignitingthe solid fuel to produce at least one of plasma and thermal power inthe ignition chamber; and converting at least some of at least one ofthe plasma and the thermal power into mechanical power. An additionalmethod for producing mechanical power is disclosed comprising: supplyinga water-based fuel to an ignition chamber; supplying at least about5,000 A to an electrode electrically coupled to the water-based fuel;igniting the water-based fuel to form at least one of arc plasma andthermal power in the ignition chamber; and converting at least some ofat least one of the arc plasma and the thermal power into mechanicalpower.

An additional embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to amachine configured for land-based transportation, comprising: anelectrical power source of at least about 5,000 A; an ignition chamberconfigured to produce at least one of at least one of plasma, arcplasma, and thermal power; a fuel delivery device configured to delivera fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes coupled to theelectrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel toproduce the at least one of the plasma the arc plasma, and the thermalpower; a moveable element fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber andconfigured to move relative to the ignition chamber; and a drive-shaftmechanically coupled to the moveable element and configured to providemechanical power to a transportation element.

An additional embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to amachine configured for aviation transport, comprising: an electricalpower source of at least about 5,000 A; an ignition chamber configuredto produce at least one of at least one of plasma, arc plasma, andthermal power; a fuel delivery device configured to deliver a fuel tothe ignition chamber; a pair of electrodes coupled to the electricalpower source and configured to supply power to the fuel to produce theat least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and thermal power; amoveable element fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configuredto move relative to the ignition chamber; and an aviation elementmechanically coupled to the moveable element and configured to providepropulsion in an aviation environment.

Embodiments of the present disclosure are also directed to a machineconfigured for marine transport, comprising: an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A; an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power; afuel delivery device configured to deliver a fuel to the ignitionchamber; a pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source andconfigured to supply power to the fuel to produce the at least one ofthe plasma, the arc plasma, and the thermal power; a moveable elementfluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to move relativeto the ignition chamber; and a marine element mechanically coupled tothe moveable element and configured to provide propulsion in a marineenvironment.

Additional embodiments of the present disclosure re directed to workmachines comprising: an electrical power source of at least about 5,000A; an ignition chamber configured to produce at least one of at leastone of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power; a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a fuel to the ignition chamber; a pair ofelectrodes coupled to the electrical power source and configured tosupply power to the fuel to produce the at least one of the plasma, thearc plasma, and the thermal power; a moveable element fluidly coupled tothe ignition chamber and configured to move relative to the ignitionchamber; and a work element mechanically coupled to the moveable elementand configured to provide mechanical power.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of a CIHT cell in accordance with anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of a CIHT cell dipolar plate in accordancewith an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showinga carrousel reloading system in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 4A is a schematic drawing of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showinga hopper reloading system in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 4B is a schematic drawing of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showingelectrodes that also serve as structure elements and showing a source ofelectrical power that also serves as the startup power source inaccordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 5 is a schematic drawing of the operation of a magnetohydrodynamicpower converter in accordance with an embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 6 is a schematic drawing of a magnetohydrodynamic power converterin accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 7 is a schematic drawing of systems integration for electricalSF-CIHT cell applications in accordance with an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 8 is a schematic drawing of systems integration for thermal andhybrid electrical-thermal SF-CIHT cell applications in accordance withan embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 9 is a schematic drawing of an internal SF-CIHT cell engine inaccordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 10 is a schematic drawing of a H₂O arc plasma cell power generatorwith excerpt showing the inside of the arc plasma vessel in accordancewith an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 11 is a schematic drawing of an experimental H₂O arc plasma cellpower generator in accordance with an embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 12 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13A depicts an exemplary power generation system in an open state,according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13B depicts the exemplary power generation system of FIG. 13A in aclosed state.

FIG. 13C depicts an exemplary power generation system in an open state,according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 13D depicts the exemplary power generation system of FIG. 13C in aclosed state.

FIGS. 14A and 14B depict various perspectives of an exemplary powergeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15A depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a powergeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15B depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a powergeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15C depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a powergeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 15D depicts an exemplary configuration of components within a powergeneration system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 16 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17A depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 17B depicts an alternative configuration of the components of theexemplary power generation system of FIG. 17A.

FIG. 18A depicts exemplary electrodes of a power generation system,according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 18B depicts an alternative configuration of the exemplaryelectrodes of FIG. 18A.

FIG. 19 depicts an exemplary plasma converter, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 20 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 21 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 22 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 23 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 24 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 25 depicts an exemplary power generation system, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 26 is an illustration of a mechanical power generation system,according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 27 is an illustration of an enlarged view of a portion of amechanical power generation system, according to an embodiment of thepresent disclosure.

FIG. 28 is a schematic representation of a portion of a mechanical powergeneration system, according to an an embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 29 is a schematic representation of a portion of a mechanical powergeneration system, according to an an embodiment of the presentdisclosure.

FIG. 30 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 31 is an illustration of a pair of electrodes, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 32 is an illustration of an electrode, according to an embodimentof the present disclosure.

FIGS. 33A and 33B are different views of an impeller, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 34 is an illustration of a mechanical power generation system,according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 35A and 35B are different views of a fuel delivery device and anignition chamber, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 36 is an illustration of a chamber array and a fuel deliverydevice, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

FIGS. 37A, 37B, and 37C are illustrations of different embodiments offuel receptacles and electrodes in accordance with the presentdisclosure.

FIGS. 38A and 38B is an illustration of ignition chambers, according toembodiments of the present disclosure.

FIG. 39 is an illustration of an ignition chamber, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 40 is an illustration of an ignition chamber, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

FIG. 41 is an illustration of an ignition chamber, according to anembodiment of the present disclosure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed here in are catalyst systems to release energy from atomichydrogen to form lower energy states wherein the electron shell is at acloser position relative to the nucleus. The released power is harnessedfor power generation and additionally new hydrogen species and compoundsare desired products. These energy states are predicted by classicalphysical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogenin order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition.

Classical physics gives closed-form solutions of the hydrogen atom, thehydride ion, the hydrogen molecular ion, and the hydrogen molecule andpredicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantumnumbers. Using Maxwell's equations, the structure of the electron wasderived as a boundary-value problem wherein the electron comprises thesource current of time-varying electromagnetic fields during transitionswith the constraint that the bound n=1 state electron cannot radiateenergy. A reaction predicted by the solution of the H atom involves aresonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomichydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy to form hydrogenin lower-energy states than previously thought possible. Specifically,classical physics predicts that atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalyticreaction with certain atoms, excimers, ions, and diatomic hydrides whichprovide a reaction with a net enthalpy of an integer multiple of thepotential energy of atomic hydrogen, E_(h)=27.2 eV where E_(h) is oneHartree. Specific species (e.g. He⁺, Ar⁺, Sr⁺, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH,SH, SeH, nascent H₂O, nH (n=integer)) identifiable on the basis of theirknown electron energy levels are required to be present with atomichydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiativeenergy transfer followed by q·13.6 eV continuum emission or q·13.6 eVtransfer to H to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and ahydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogenthat corresponds to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, inthe formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom:

$\begin{matrix}{E_{n} = {{- \frac{e^{2}}{n^{2}8\pi\varepsilon_{0}a_{H}}} = {- {\frac{13.598{eV}}{n^{2}}.}}}} & (1)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}{{n = 1},2,3,\ldots} & (2)\end{matrix}$

where a_(H) is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e isthe magnitude of the charge of the electron, and ε_(o) is the vacuumpermittivity, fractional quantum numbers:

$\begin{matrix}{{n = 1},\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{4},\ldots,{{\frac{1}{p};{where}p} \leq {137{is}{an}{integer}}}} & (3)\end{matrix}$

replace the well known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation forhydrogen excited states and represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atomscalled “hydrinos.” Then, similar to an excited state having theanalytical solution of Maxwell's equations, a hydrino atom alsocomprises an electron, a proton, and a photon. However, the electricfield of the latter increases the binding corresponding to desorption ofenergy rather than decreasing the central field with the absorption ofenergy as in an excited state, and the resultant photon-electroninteraction of the hydrino is stable rather than radiative.

The n=1 state of hydrogen and the

$n = \frac{1}{integer}$

states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between twononradiative states, say n=1 to n=1/2, is possible via a nonradiativeenergy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states givenby Eqs. (1) and (3) wherein the corresponding radius of the hydrogen orhydrino atom is given by

$\begin{matrix}{{r = \frac{a_{H}}{p}},} & (4)\end{matrix}$

where p=1,2,3, . . . . In order to conserve energy, energy must betransferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of

$\begin{matrix}{{{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}},{m = 1},2,3,4,\ldots} & (5)\end{matrix}$

and the radius transitions to

$\frac{a_{H}}{m + p}.$

The catalyst reactions involve two steps of energy release: anonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additionalenergy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable finalstate. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the netenthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m·27.2 eV. It has beenfound that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ×10%,preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for most applications. In thecase of the catalysis of hydrino atoms to lower energy states, theenthalpy of reaction of m·27.2 eV (Eq. (5)) is relativisticallycorrected by the same factor as the potential energy of the hydrinoatom.

Thus, the general reaction is given by

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}} + {Cat}^{q +} + {H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack}}\rightarrow{{Cat}^{{({q + r})} +} + {re}^{-} + {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}}} \right. & (6)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}\left. {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {\left( {m + p} \right)^{2} - p^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}{eV}} - {{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}}} \right. & (7)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}\left. {{Cat}^{{({q + r})} +} + {re}^{-}}\rightarrow{{Cat}^{q +} + {{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}{and}}} \right. & (8)\end{matrix}$

the overall reaction is

$\begin{matrix}\left. {H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {\left( {m + p} \right)^{2} - p^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}{eV}}} \right. & (9)\end{matrix}$

q, r, m, and p are integers.

$H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack$

has the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in thedenominator) and a central field equivalent to (m+p) times that of aproton, and

$H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {m + p} \right)} \right\rbrack$

is the corresponding stable state with the radius of

$\frac{1}{\left( {m + p} \right)}$

that of H. As the electron undergoes radial acceleration from the radiusof the hydrogen atom to a radius

$\frac{1}{\left( {m + p} \right)}$

this distance, energy is released as characteristic light emission or asthird-body kinetic energy. The emission may be in the form of anextreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation having an edge at[(p+m)²−p²−2m]·13.6 eV or

$\frac{9{1.2}}{\left\lbrack {\left( {m + p} \right)^{2} - p^{2} - {2m}} \right\rbrack}nm$

and extending to longer wavelengths. In addition to radiation, aresonant kinetic energy transfer to form fast H may occur. Subsequentexcitation of these fast H (n=1) atoms by collisions with the backgroundH₂ followed by emission of the corresponding H (n=3) fast atoms givesrise to broadened Balmer α emission. Alternatively, fast H is a directproduct of H or hydrino serving as the catalyst wherein the acceptanceof the resonant energy transfer regards the potential energy rather thanthe ionization energy. Conservation of energy gives a proton of thekinetic energy corresponding to one half the potential energy in theformer case and a catalyst ion at essentially rest in the latter case.The H recombination radiation of the fast protons gives rise tobroadened Balmer α emission that is disproportionate to the inventory ofhot hydrogen consistent with the excess power balance.

In the present disclosure the terms such as hydrino reaction, Hcatalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen,the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formationreaction all refer to the reaction such as that of Eqs. (6-9)) of acatalyst defined by Eq. (5) with atomic H to form states of hydrogenhaving energy levels given by Eqs. (1) and (3). The corresponding termssuch as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture,reactants for hydrino formation, reactants that produce or formlower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeablywhen referring to the reaction mixture that performs the catalysis of Hto H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by Eqs. (1) and(3).

The catalytic lower-energy hydrogen transitions of the presentdisclosure require a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermicchemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzedatomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV, that accepts the energy from atomic H to causethe transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionizationof one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g. m=3for Li→Li²⁺) and may further comprise the concerted reaction of a bondcleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more ofthe partners of the initial bond (e.g. m=2 for NaH →Na²⁺+H). He⁺fulfills the catalyst criterion—a chemical or physical process with anenthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizesat 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atomsmay also serve as the catalyst of an integer multiple of 27.2 eVenthalpy. Hydrogen atoms H(1/p) p=1,2,3, . . . 137 can undergo furthertransitions to lower-energy states given by Eqs. (1) and (3) wherein thetransition of one atom is catalyzed by one or more additional H atomsthat resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m·27.2 eV with a concomitantopposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equationfor the transition of H(1/p) to H(1/(m+p)) induced by a resonancetransfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1/p′) is represented by

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{H\left( {1/p^{\prime}} \right)} + {H\left( {1/p} \right)}}\rightarrow{H + {H\left( {1/\left( {m + p} \right)} \right)} + {{\left\lbrack {{2{pm}} + m^{2} - p^{\prime 2} + 1} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}{eV}}} \right. & (10)\end{matrix}$

Hydrogen atoms may serve as a catalyst wherein m=1, m=2, and m=3 forone, two, and three atoms, respectively, acting as a catalyst foranother. The rate for the two-atom-catalyst, 2H, may be high whenextraordinarily fast H collides with a molecule to form the 2H whereintwo atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept 54.4 eV from a thirdhydrogen atom of the collision partners. By the same mechanism, thecollision of two hot H₂ provide 3H to serve as a catalyst of 3·27.2 eVfor the fourth. The EUV continua at 22.8 nm and 10.1 nm, extraordinary(>100 eV) Balmer α line broadening, highly excited H states, the productgas H₂(1/4), and large energy release is observed consistent withpredictions.

H(1/4) is a preferred hydrino state based on its multipolarity and theselection rules for its formation. Thus, in the case that H(1/3) isformed, the transition to H(1/4) may occur rapidly catalyzed by Haccording to Eq. (10). Similarly, H(1/4) is a preferred state for acatalyst energy greater than or equal to 81.6 eV corresponding to m=3 inEq. (5). In this case the energy transfer to the catalyst comprises the81.6 eV that forms that H*(1/4) intermediate of Eq. (7) as well as aninteger of 27.2 eV from the decay of the intermediate. For example, acatalyst having an enthalpy of 108.8 eV may form H*(1/4) by accepting81.6 eV as well as 27.2 eV from the H*(1/4) decay energy of 122.4 eV.The remaining decay energy of 95.2 eV is released to the environment toform the preferred state H(1/4) that then reacts to form H₂(1/4).

A suitable catalyst can therefore provide a net positive enthalpy ofreaction of m 27.2 eV. That is, the catalyst resonantly accepts thenonradiative energy transfer from hydrogen atoms and releases the energyto the surroundings to affect electronic transitions to fractionalquantum energy levels. As a consequence of the nonradiative energytransfer, the hydrogen atom becomes unstable and emits further energyuntil it achieves a lower-energy nonradiative state having a principalenergy level given by Eqs. (1) and (3). Thus, the catalysis releasesenergy from the hydrogen atom with a commensurate decrease in size ofthe hydrogen atom, r_(n)=na_(H) where n is given by Eq. (3). Forexample, the catalysis of H(n=1) to H(n=1/4) releases 204 eV, and thehydrogen radius decreases from a_(H) to 1/4a_(H).

The catalyst product, H(1/p), may also react with an electron to form ahydrino hydride ion H⁻(1/p), or two H(1/p) may react to form thecorresponding molecular hydrino H₂(1/p). Specifically, the catalystproduct, H(1/p), may also react with an electron to form a novel hydrideion H⁻(1/p) with a binding energy E_(B):

$\begin{matrix}{E_{B} = {\frac{\hslash^{2}\sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{8\mu_{e}{a_{0}^{2}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{2}} - {\frac{\pi\mu_{0}e^{2}\hslash^{2}}{m_{e}^{2}}\left( {\frac{1}{a_{H}^{3}} + \frac{2^{2}}{{a_{0}^{3}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{3}}} \right)}}} & (11)\end{matrix}$

where p=integer>1, s=1/2, ℏ is Planck's constant bar, μ_(o) is thepermeability of vacuum, m_(e) is the mass of the electron, μ_(e) is thereduced electron mass given by

$\mu_{e} = \frac{m_{e}m_{p}}{\frac{m_{e}}{\sqrt{\frac{3}{4}}} + m_{p}}$

where m_(p) is the mass of the proton, a_(o) is the Bohr radius, and theionic radius is

$r_{1} = {{\frac{a_{0}}{p}\left( {1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}} \right)}.}$

From Eq. (11), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is0.75418 eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99±0.15 cm⁻¹ (0.75418eV). The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions may be measured byX-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence of the existence oflower-energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to ordinaryhydride ion and having an increase in diamagnetic shielding of theproton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of thediamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p(Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)):

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\Delta B_{T}}{B} = {{{- \mu_{0}}\frac{{pe}^{2}}{12m_{e}{a_{0}\left( {1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}} \right)}}\left( {1 + {p\alpha^{2}}} \right)} = {{- \left( {{p29.9} + {p^{2}1.59 \times 10^{- 3}}} \right)}{ppm}}}} & (12)\end{matrix}$

where the first term applies to H⁻ with p=1 and p=integer>1 for H⁻(1/p)and α is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydridepeaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary hydrideion. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shiftrelative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one ofordinary H⁻, H, H₂, or H⁺ alone or comprising a compound. The shift maybe greater than at least one of 0, −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8, −9,−10, −11, −12, −13, −14, −15, −16, −17, −18, −19, −20, −21, −22, −23,−24, −25, −26, −27, −28, −29, −30, −31, −32, −33, −34, −35, −36, −37,−38, −39, and −40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to abare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about −31.5 relative to a bareproton, may be −(p29.9+p²2.74) ppm (Eq. (12)) within a range of about atleast one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The range of the absoluteshift relative to a bare proton may be −(p29.9+p²1.59×10⁻³) ppm (Eq.(12)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrinospecies such as a hydrino atom, hydride ion, or molecule in a solidmatrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH causes thematrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons such as those ofNaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shift may cause thematrix peak to be in the range of about −0.1 ppm to −5 ppm relative toTMS. The NMR determination may comprise magic angle spinning ¹H nuclearmagnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS ¹H NMR).

H(1/p) may react with a proton and two H(1/p) may react to form H₂(1/p)⁺and H₂(1/p), respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and molecularcharge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies weresolved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the constraintof nonradiation.

$\begin{matrix}{{{\left( {\eta - \zeta} \right)R_{\xi}{\frac{\partial}{\partial\xi}\left( {R_{\xi}\frac{\partial\phi}{\partial\xi}} \right)}} + {\left( {\zeta - \xi} \right)R_{\eta}{\frac{\partial}{\partial\eta}\left( {R_{\eta}\frac{\partial\phi}{\partial\eta}} \right)}} + {\left( {\xi - \eta} \right)R_{\zeta}{\frac{\partial}{\partial\zeta}\left( {R_{\zeta}\frac{\partial\phi}{\partial\zeta}} \right)}}} = 0} & (13)\end{matrix}$

The total energy E_(T) of the hydrogen molecular ion having a centralfield of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{T} = {{- p^{2}}\left\{ {{\frac{e^{2}}{8\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{H}}{\left( {{4\ln 3} - 1 - {2\ln 3}} \right)\left\lbrack {1 + {p\sqrt{\frac{2\hslash\sqrt{\frac{2e^{2}}{\frac{4\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( {2a_{H}} \right)}^{3}}{m_{e}}}}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}} \right\rbrack}} - {\frac{1}{2}\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{{pe}^{2}}{4\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{2a_{H}}{p} \right)}^{3}} - \frac{{pe}^{2}}{8\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{3a_{H}}{p} \right)}^{3}}}{\mu}}}} \right\}}}{= {{{- p^{2}}16.13392{eV}} - {p^{3}0.118755{eV}}}}} & (14)\end{matrix}$

where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is thereduced nuclear mass. The total energy of the hydrogen molecule having acentral field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecularorbital is

$\begin{matrix}{{E_{T} = {{- p^{2}}\left\{ {{{\frac{e^{2}}{8\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{0}}\left\lbrack {{\left( {{2\sqrt{2}} - \sqrt{2} + \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}} \right)\ln\frac{\sqrt{2} + 1}{\sqrt{2} - 1}} - \sqrt{2}} \right\rbrack}\left\lbrack {1 + {p\sqrt{\frac{2\hslash\sqrt{\frac{e^{2}}{\frac{4\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{0}^{3}}{m_{e}}}}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}} \right\rbrack} - {\frac{1}{2}\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{{pe}^{2}}{8\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{a_{0}}{p} \right)}^{3}} - \frac{{pe}^{2}}{8\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{\left( {1 + \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}} \right)a_{0}}{p} \right)}^{3}}}{\mu}}}} \right\}}}{= {{{- p^{2}}31.351{eV}} - {p^{3}0.326469{eV}}}}} & (15)\end{matrix}$

The bond dissociation energy, E_(D), of the hydrogen molecule H₂(1/p) isthe difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogenatoms and E_(T)

$\begin{matrix}{E_{D} = {{E\left( {2{H\left( {1/p} \right)}} \right)} - E_{T}}} & (16)\end{matrix}$

where

$\begin{matrix}{{{E\left( {2{H\left( {1/p} \right)}} \right)} = {{- p^{2}}27.2{eV}}}{E_{D}{is}{given}{by}{{Eqs}.\left( {16 - 17} \right)}{and}(15):}\begin{matrix}{E_{D} = {{{- p^{2}}27.2{eV}} - E_{T}}} \\{= {{{- p^{2}}27.2{eV}} - \left( {{{- p^{2}}31.351{eV}} - {p^{3}0.326469{eV}}} \right)}}\end{matrix}} & (17)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}{= {{p^{2}4.151{eV}} + {p^{3}0.326469{eV}}}} & (18)\end{matrix}$

H₂(1/p) may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)wherein the ionization product in addition to the ionized electron maybe at least one of the possibilities such as those comprising twoprotons and an electron, a H atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion,hydrogen molecular ion, and H₂(1/p)⁺ wherein the energies may be shiftedby the matrix.

The NMR of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of thetheoretically predicted chemical shift of H₂(1/p). In general, the ¹HNMR resonance of H₂(1/p) is predicted to be upfield from that of H₂ dueto the fractional radius in elliptic coordinates wherein the electronsare significantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift,

$\frac{\Delta B_{T}}{B},$

for H₂(1/p) is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetismof the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCPEqs. (11.415-11.416)):

$\begin{matrix}{\frac{\Delta\; B_{T}}{B} = {{- {\mu_{0}\left( {4 - {\sqrt{2}\ln\frac{\sqrt{2} + 1}{\sqrt{2} - 1}}} \right)}}\frac{{pe}^{2}}{36a_{0}m_{e}}\left( {1 + {pa}^{2}} \right)}} & (19) \\{\frac{\Delta\; B_{T}}{B} = {{- \left( {{p\; 28.01} + {p^{2}1.49 \times 10^{- 3}}} \right)}{ppm}}} & (20)\end{matrix}$

where the first term applies to H₂ with p=1 and p=integer>1 for H₂(1/p).The experimental absolute H₂ gas-phase resonance shift of −28.0 ppm isin excellent agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of−28.01 ppm (Eq. (20)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks areextraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary H₂. In anembodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMSmay be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H⁻, H, H₂,or H⁺ alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than atleast one of 0, −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8, −9, −10, −11, −12, −13,−14, −15, −16, −17, −18, −19, −20, −21, −22, −23, −24, −25, −26, −27,−28, −29, −30, −31, −32, −33, −34, −35, −36, −37, −38, −39, and −40 ppm.The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein theshift of TMS is about −31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be−(p28.01+p²2.56) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm,±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relativeto a bare proton may be −(p28.01+p²1.49×10) ppm (Eq. (20)) within arange of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to10%.

The vibrational energies, E_(vib), for the v=0 to v=1 transition ofhydrogen-type molecules H₂(1/p) are

$\begin{matrix}{E_{vib} = {p^{2}{0.5}15902\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} & (21)\end{matrix}$

where p is an integer.

The rotational energies, E_(rot), for the J to J+1 transition ofhydrogen-type molecules H₂(1/p) are

$\begin{matrix}{E_{rot} = {{E_{J + 1} - E_{J}} = {{\frac{h^{2}}{I}\left\lbrack {J + 1} \right\rbrack} = {{p^{2}\left( {J + 1} \right)}{0.0}1509\mspace{14mu}{eV}}}}} & (22)\end{matrix}$

where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Ro-vibrationalemission of H₂(1/4) was observed on e-beam excited molecules in gasesand trapped in solid matrix.

The p² dependence of the rotational energies results from an inverse pdependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact onthe moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c′ forH₂(1/p) is

$\begin{matrix}{{2c^{\prime}} = \frac{a_{o}\sqrt{2}}{p}} & (23)\end{matrix}$

At least one of the rotational and vibration energies of H₂(1/p) may bemeasured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emissionspectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)spectroscopy. H₂(1/p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement such asin at least one of MOH, MX, and M₂CO₃ (M=alkali; X=halide) matrix.

I. Catalysts

He⁺, Ar⁺, Sr⁺, Li, K, NaH, nH (n=integer), and H₂O are predicted toserve as catalysts since they meet the catalyst criterion—a chemical orphysical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple ofthe potential energy of atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV. Specifically, acatalytic system is provided by the ionization of t electrons from anatom each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of theionization energies of the t electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV wherem is an integer. Moreover, further catalytic transitions may occur suchas in the case wherein H(1/2) is first formed:

${n = \left. \frac{1}{2}\rightarrow\frac{1}{3} \right.},\left. \frac{1}{3}\rightarrow\frac{1}{4} \right.,\left. \frac{1}{4}\rightarrow\frac{1}{5} \right.,$

and so on. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze further in aprocess called disproportionation wherein H or H(1/p) serves as thecatalyst for another H or H(1/p′) (p may equal p′).

Hydrogen and hydrinos may serves as catalysts. Hydrogen atoms H(1/p)p=1,2,3, . . . 137 can undergo transitions to lower-energy states givenby Eqs. (1) and (3) wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by asecond that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m·27.2 eV with aconcomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The overall generalequation for the transition of H(1/p) to H(1/(m+p)) induced by aresonance transfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1/p′) is represented by Eq. (10).Thus, hydrogen atoms may serve as a catalyst wherein m=1, m=2, and m=3for one, two, and three atoms, respectively, acting as a catalyst foranother. The rate for the two- or three-atom-catalyst case would beappreciable only when the H density is high. But, high H densities arenot uncommon. A high hydrogen atom concentration permissive of 2H or 3Hserving as the energy acceptor for a third or fourth may be achievedunder several circumstances such as on the surface of the Sun and starsdue to the temperature and gravity driven density, on metal surfacesthat support multiple monolayers, and in highly dissociated plasmas,especially pinched hydrogen plasmas. Additionally, a three-body Hinteraction is easily achieved when two H atoms arise with the collisionof a hot H with H₂. This event can commonly occur in plasmas having alarge population of extraordinarily fast H. This is evidenced by theunusual intensity of atomic H emission. In such cases, energy transfercan occur from a hydrogen atom to two others within sufficientproximity, being typically a few angstroms via multipole coupling. Then,the reaction between three hydrogen atoms whereby two atoms resonantlyand nonradiatively accept 54.4 eV from the third hydrogen atom such that2H serves as the catalyst is given by

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{54.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}} + {2H} + H}\rightarrow{{2H_{fast}^{+}} + {2e^{-}} + {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack} + {54.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (24) \\\left. {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack} + {54.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (25) \\\left. {{2H_{fast}^{+}} + {2e^{-}}}\rightarrow{{2H} + {54.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (26)\end{matrix}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{matrix}\left. H\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {3^{2} - 1^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (27)\end{matrix}$

wherein

$H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack$

has the radius of the hydrogen atom and a central field equivalent to 3times that of a proton and

$H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{3} \right\rbrack$

is the corresponding stable state with the radius of ⅓ that of H. As theelectron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogenatom to a radius of ⅓ this distance, energy is released ascharacteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy.

In another H-atom catalyst reaction involving a direct transition to

$\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack$

state, two not H₂ molecules collide and dissociate such that three Hatoms serve as a catalyst of 3·27.2 eV for the fourth. Then, thereaction between four hydrogen atoms whereby three atoms resonantly andnonradiatively accept 81.6 eV from the fourth hydrogen atom such that 3Hserves as the catalyst is given by

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{81.6\mspace{14mu}{eV}} + {3H} + H}\rightarrow{{3H_{fast}^{+}} + {3e^{-}} + {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {81.6\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (28) \\\left. {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {122.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (29) \\\left. {{3H_{fast}^{+}} + {3e^{-}}}\rightarrow{{3H} + {81.6\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (30)\end{matrix}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{matrix}\left. H\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {4^{2} - 1^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (31)\end{matrix}$

The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the

$H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack$

intermediate of Eq. (28) is predicted to have short wavelength cutoff at122.4 eV (10.1 nm) and extend to longer wavelengths. This continuum bandwas confirmed experimentally. In general, the transition of H to

$H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p = {m + 1}} \right\rbrack$

due by the acceptance of m·27.2 eV gives a continuum band with a shortwavelength cutoff and energy

$E_{({H\rightarrow{H{\lbrack\frac{a_{H}}{p = {m + 1}}\rbrack}}})}$

given by

$\begin{matrix}{E_{({H\rightarrow{H\lbrack\frac{a_{H}}{p = {m + 1}}\rbrack}})} = {{m^{2} \cdot 13.6}{eV}}} & (32)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}{\lambda_{({H\rightarrow{H\lbrack\frac{a_{H}}{p = {m + 1}}\rbrack}})} = {\frac{91.2}{m^{2}}{nm}}} & (33)\end{matrix}$

and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Thehydrogen emission series of 10.1 nm, 22.8 nm, and 91.2 nm continua wereobserved experimentally in intersteallr medium, the Sun and white dwarfstars.

The potential energy of H₂O is 81.6 eV (Eq. (43)) [Mills GUT]. Then, bythe same mechanism, the nascent H₂O molecule (not hydrogen bonded insolid, liquid, or gaseous state) may serve as a catalyst (Eqs. (44-47)).The continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm and going to longer wavelengthsfor theoretically predicted transitions of H to lower-energy, so called“hydrino” states, was observed only arising from pulsed pinched hydrogendischarges first at BlackLight Power, Inc. (BLP) and reproduced at theHarvard Center for Astrophysics (CfA). Continuum radiation in the 10 to30 nm region that matched predicted transitions of H to hydrino states,were observed only arising from pulsed pinched hydrogen discharges withmetal oxides that are thermodynamically favorable to undergo H reductionto form HOH catalyst; whereas, those that are unfavorable did not showany continuum even though the low-melting point metals tested are veryfavorable to forming metal ion plasmas with strong short-wavelengthcontinua in more powerful plasma sources.

Alternatively, a resonant kinetic energy transfer to form fast H mayoccur consistent with the observation of extraordinary Balmer α linebroadening corresponding to high-kinetic energy H. The energy transferto two H also causes pumping of the catalyst excited states, and fast His produced directly as given by exemplary Eqs. (24), (28), and (47) andby resonant kinetic energy transfer.

II. Hydrinos

A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by

$\begin{matrix}{{{Binding}{Energy}} = \frac{13.6{eV}}{\left( {1/p} \right)^{2}}} & (34)\end{matrix}$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is theproduct of the H catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. Thebinding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as theionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron fromthe atom, ion or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the binding energygiven in Eq. (34) is hereafter referred to as a “hydrino atom” or“hydrino.” The designation for a hydrino of radius

$\frac{a_{H}}{p},$

where a_(H) is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is aninteger, is

${H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack}.$

A hydrogen atom with a radius a_(H) is hereinafter referred to as“ordinary hydrogen atom” or “normal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomichydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Hydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with asuitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of

$\begin{matrix}{{m \cdot 27.2}{eV}} & (35)\end{matrix}$

where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis isincreased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched tom·27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy ofreaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for mostapplications.

This catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atom with acommensurate decrease in size of the hydrogen atom, r_(n)=na_(H). Forexample, the catalysis of H(n=1) to H(n=1/2) releases 40.8 eV, and thehydrogen radius decreases from a_(H) to 1/2a_(H). A catalytic system isprovided by the ionization of t electrons from an atom each to acontinuum energy level such that the sum of the ionization energies ofthe t electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer. As apower source, the energy given off during catalysis is much greater thanthe energy lost to the catalyst. The energy released is large ascompared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogenand oxygen gases undergo combustion to form water

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{H_{2}(g)} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}(g)}}\rightarrow{H_{2}O(l)} \right. & (36)\end{matrix}$

the known enthalpy of formation of water is ΔH_(f)=−286 kJ/mole or 1.48eV per hydrogen atom. By contrast, each (n=1) ordinary hydrogen atomundergoing catalysis releases a net of 40.8 eV. Moreover, furthercatalytic transitions may occur:

${n = \left. \frac{1}{2}\rightarrow\frac{1}{3} \right.},\left. \frac{1}{3}\rightarrow\frac{1}{4} \right.,\left. \frac{1}{4}\rightarrow\frac{1}{5} \right.,$

and so on. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze further in aprocess called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that ofan inorganic ion catalysis. But, hydrino catalysis should have a higherreaction rate than that of the inorganic ion catalyst due to the bettermatch of the enthalpy to m·27.2 eV.

III. Hydrino Catalysts and Hydrino Products

Hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction ofapproximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer to produce a hydrino(whereby t electrons are ionized from an atom or ion) are given inTABLE 1. The atoms or ions given in the first column are ionized toprovide the net enthalpy of reaction of m·27.2 eV given in the tenthcolumn where m is given in the eleventh column. The electrons, thatparticipate in ionization are given with the ionization potential (alsocalled ionization energy or binding energy). The ionization potential ofthe nth electron of the atom or ion is designated by IP_(n) and is givenby the CRC. That is for example, Li+5.39172 eV→Li⁺+e⁻ and Li⁺+75.6402eV→Li²⁺+e⁻. The first ionization potential, IP₁=5.39172 eV, and thesecond ionization potential, IP₂=75.6402 eV, are given in the second andthird columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for the doubleionization of Li is 81.0319 eV as given in the tenth column, and m=3 inEq. (5) as given in the eleventh column.

TABLE 1 Hydrogen Catalysts. Catalyst IP1 IP2 IP3 IP4 IP5 IP6 IP7 IP8Enthalpy m Li 5.39172 75.6402 81.032 3 Be 9.32263 18.2112 27.534 1 Mg7.646235 15.03527 80.1437 109.2655 141.27 353.3607 13 K 4.34066 31.6345.806 81.777 3 Ca 6.11316 11.8717 50.9131 67.27 136.17 5 Ti 6.828213.5755 27.4917 43.267 99.3 190.46 7 V 6.7463 14.66 29.311 46.70965.2817 162.71 6 Cr 6.76664 16.4857 30.96 54.212 2 Mn 7.43402 15.6433.668 51.2 107.94 4 Fe 7.9024 16.1878 30.652 54.742 2 Fe 7.9024 16.187830.652 54.8 109.54 4 Co 7.881 17.083 33.5 51.3 109.76 4 Co 7.881 17.08333.5 51.3 79.5 189.26 7 Ni 7.6398 18.1688 35.19 54.9 76.06 191.96 7 Ni7.6398 18.1688 35.19 54.9 76.06 108 299.96 11 Cu 7.72638 20.2924 28.0191 Zn 9.39405 17.9644 27.358 1 Zn 9.39405 17.9644 39.723 59.4 82.6 108134 174 625.08 23 Ga 5.999301 20.51514 26.5144 1 As 9.8152 18.633 28.35150.13 62.63 127.6 297.16 11 Se 9.75238 21.19 30.8204 42.945 68.3 81.7155.4 410.11 15 Kr 13.9996 24.3599 36.95 52.5 64.7 78.5 271.01 10 Kr13.9996 24.3599 36.95 52.5 64.7 78.5 111 382.01 14 Rb 4.17713 27.285 4052.6 71 84.4 99.2 378.66 14 Rb 4.17713 27.285 40 52.6 71 84.4 99.2 136514.66 19 Sr 5.69484 11.0301 42.89 57 71.6 188.21 7 Nb 6.75885 14.3225.04 38.3 50.55 134.97 5 Mo 7.09243 16.16 27.13 46.4 54.49 68.8276220.10 8 Mo 7.09243 16.16 27.13 46.4 54.49 68.8276 125.664 143.6 489.3618 Ru 7.3605 16.76 28.47 50 60 162.5905 6 Pd 8.3369 19.43 27.767 1 Sn7.34381 14.6323 30.5026 40.735 72.28 165.49 6 Te 9.0096 18.6 27.61 1 Te9.0096 18.6 27.96 55.57 2 Cs 3.8939 23.1575 27.051 1 Ba 5.21166410.00383 35.84 49 62 162.0555 6 Ba 5.21 10 37.3 Ce 5.5387 10.85 20.19836.758 65.55 138.89 5 Ce 5.5387 10.85 20.198 36.758 65.55 77.6 216.49 8Pr 5.464 10.55 21.624 38.98 57.53 134.15 5 Sm 5.6437 11.07 23.4 41.481.514 3 Gd 6.15 12.09 20.63 44 82.87 3 Dy 5.9389 11.67 22.8 41.4781.879 3 Pb 7.41666 15.0322 31.9373 54.386 2 Pt 8.9587 18.563 27.522 1He⁺ 54.4178 54.418 2 Na⁺ 47.2864 71.6200 98.91 217.816 8 Mg²⁺ 80.143780.1437 3 Rb⁺ 27.285 27.285 1 Fe³⁺ 54.8 54.8 2 Mo²⁺ 27.13 27.13 1 Mo⁴⁺54.49 54.49 2 In³⁺ 54 54 2 Ar⁺ 27.62 27.62 1 Sr⁺ 11.03 42.89 53.92 2

The hydrino hydride ion of the present disclosure can be formed by thereaction of an electron source with a hydrino, that is, a hydrogen atomhaving a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6{eV}}{n^{2}},$

where

$n = \frac{1}{p}$

and p is an integer greater than 1. The hydrino hydride ion isrepresented by H⁻(n=1/p) or H⁻(1/p):

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack} + e^{-}}\rightarrow{H^{-}\left( {n = {1/p}} \right)} \right. & (37)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}\left. {{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack} + e^{-}}\rightarrow{{H^{-}\left( {1/p} \right)}.} \right. & (38)\end{matrix}$

The hydrino hydride ion is distinguished from an ordinary hydride ioncomprising an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having abinding energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter is hereafter referred to as“ordinary hydride ion” or “normal hydride ion.” The hydrino hydride ioncomprises a hydrogen nucleus including proteum, deuterium, or tritium,and two indistinguishable electrons at a binding energy according toEqs. (39) and (40).

The binding energy of a hydrino hydride ion can be represented by thefollowing formula:

$\begin{matrix}{{{Binding}{Energy}} = {\frac{h^{2}\sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{8\mu_{e}{a_{0}^{2}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{2}} - {\frac{{\pi\mu}_{0}e^{2}h^{2}}{m_{e}^{2}}\left( {\frac{1}{a_{H}^{3}} + \frac{2^{2}}{{a_{0}^{3}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{3}}} \right)}}} & (39)\end{matrix}$

where p is an integer greater than one, s=1/2, π is pi, ℏ is Planck'sconstant bar, μ_(o) is the permeability of vacuum, m_(e) is the mass ofthe electron, μ_(e) is the reduced electron mass given by

$\mu_{e} = \frac{m_{e}m_{p}}{\frac{m_{e}}{\sqrt{\frac{3}{4}}} + m_{p}}$

where m_(p) is the mass of the proton, a_(H) is the radius of thehydrogen atom, a_(o) is the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge.The radii are given by

$\begin{matrix}{{{r_{2} = {r_{1} = {a_{0}\left( {1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}} \right)}}};}{s = {\frac{1}{2}.}}} & (40)\end{matrix}$

The binding energies of the hydrino hydride ion, H⁻(n=1/p) as a functionof p, where p is an integer, are shown in TABLE 2.

TABLE 2 The representative binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n = 1/p) as a function of p, Eq. (39). Hydride Ion r₁(α_(o))^(a)Binding Energy (eV)^(b) Wavelength (nm) H⁻(n = 1) 1.8660 0.7542 1644H⁻(n = 1/2) 0.9330 3.047 406.9 H⁻(n = 1/3) 0.6220 6.610 187.6 H⁻(n =1/4) 0.4665 11.23 110.4 H⁻(n = 1/5) 0.3732 16.70 74.23 H⁻(n = 1/6)0.3110 22.81 54.35 H⁻(n = 1/7) 0.2666 29.34 42.25 H⁻(n = 1/8) 0.233336.09 34.46 H⁻(n = 1/9) 0.2073 42.84 28.94 H⁻(n = 1/10) 0.1866 49.3825.11 H⁻(n = 1/11) 0.1696 55.50 22.34 H⁻(n = 1/12) 0.1555 60.98 20.33H⁻(n = 1/13) 0.1435 65.63 18.89 H⁻(n = 1/14) 0.1333 69.22 17.91 H⁻(n =1/15) 0.1244 71.55 17.33 H⁻(n = 1/16) 0.1166 72.40 17.12 H⁻(n = 1/17)0.1098 71.56 17.33 H⁻(n = 1/18) 0.1037 68.83 18.01 H⁻(n = 1/19) 0.098263.98 19.38 H⁻(n = 1/20) 0.0933 56.81 21.82 H⁻(n = 1/21) 0.0889 47.1126.32 H⁻(n = 1/22) 0.0848 34.66 35.76 H⁻(n = 1/23) 0.0811 19.26 64.36H⁻(n = 1/24) 0.0778 0.6945 1785 ^(a)Eq. (40) ^(b)Eq. (39)

According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H⁻) having abinding energy according to Eqs. (39) and (40) that is greater than thebinding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p=2 up to 23, andless for p=24 (H⁻) is provided. For p=2 to p=24 of Eqs. (39) and (40),the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7,22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6,68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositionscomprising the novel hydride ion are also provided herein.

Exemplary compounds are also provided comprising one or more hydrinohydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referredto as a “hydrino hydride compound.”

Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following bindingenergies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b)hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogenmolecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecularion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) H₃ ⁺, 22.6 eV(“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to formsof hydrogen, “normal” and “ordinary” are synonymous.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compoundis provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogenspecies such as (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6{eV}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}},$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

$\frac{13.6{eV}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}$

where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) a hydride ion (H⁻) having abinding energy of about

${{{Binding}{Energy}} = {\frac{\hslash^{2}\sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{8\mu_{e}{a_{0}^{2}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{2}} - {\frac{\pi\mu_{0}e^{2}\hslash^{2}}{m_{e}^{2}}\left( {\frac{1}{a_{H}^{3}} + \frac{2^{2}}{{a_{0}^{3}\left\lbrack \frac{1 + \sqrt{s\left( {s + 1} \right)}}{p} \right\rbrack}^{3}}} \right)}}},$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the binding energy,where p is an integer from 2 to 24; (c) H₄ ⁺(1/p); (d) a trihydrinomolecular ion, H₃ ⁺(1/p), having a binding energy of about

$\frac{2{2.6}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

$\frac{2{2.6}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a dihydrino having a bindingenergy of about

$\frac{15.3}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

$\frac{15.3}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) a dihydrino molecular ion witha binding energy of about

$\frac{16.3}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

$\frac{1{6.3}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}{eV}$

where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compoundis provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogenspecies such as (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having a total energy ofabout

$\begin{matrix}{E_{T} = {{{- p^{2}}\left\{ {{\frac{e^{2}}{8\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{H}}{\left( {{4\ln 3} - 1 - {2\ln 3}} \right)\left\lbrack {1 + {p\sqrt{\frac{2\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{2e^{2}}{4\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( {2a_{H}} \right)}^{3}}}{m_{e}}}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}} \right\rbrack}} - \text{ }{\frac{1}{2}\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{{pe}^{2}}{4\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{2a_{H}}{p} \right)}^{3}} - \frac{pe^{2}}{8\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{3a_{H}}{p} \right)}^{3}}}{\mu}}}} \right\}} = {{{- p^{2}}16.13392{eV}} - {p^{3}{0.1}18755{eV}}}}} & (41)\end{matrix}$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times the total energy E_(T),where p is an integer, ℏ is Planck's constant bar, m_(e) is the mass ofthe electron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reducednuclear mass, and (b) a dihydrino molecule having a total energy ofabout

$\begin{matrix}{E_{T} = {{{- p^{2}}\left\{ {{{\frac{e^{2}}{8\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{0}}\left\lbrack {{\left( {{2\sqrt{2}} - \sqrt{2} + \frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}} \right)\ln\frac{\sqrt{2} + 1}{\sqrt{2} - 1}} - \sqrt{2}} \right\rbrack}\text{ }\left\lbrack {1 + {p\sqrt{\frac{2\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{2e^{2}}{4\pi\varepsilon_{o}a_{0}^{3}}}{m_{e}}}}{m_{e}c^{2}}}}} \right\rbrack} - {\frac{1}{2}\hslash\sqrt{\frac{\frac{{pe}^{2}}{8{{\pi\varepsilon}_{o}\left( \frac{a_{0}}{p} \right)}^{3}} - \frac{pe^{2}}{8\pi{\varepsilon_{o}\left( \frac{\left( {1 + \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}} \right)a_{0}}{p} \right)}^{3}}}{\mu}}}} \right\}} = {{{- p^{2}}31.351{eV}} - {p^{3}{0.3}26469{eV}}}}} & (42)\end{matrix}$

such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times E_(T), where p is aninteger and a_(o) is the Bohr radius.

According to one embodiment of the present disclosure wherein thecompound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energyhydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations,such as a proton, ordinary H₂ ⁺, or ordinary H₃ ⁺.

A method is provided herein for preparing compounds comprising at leastone hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as“hydrino hydride compounds.” The method comprises reacting atomichydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about

${{\frac{m}{2} \cdot 27}{eV}},$

where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having abinding energy of about

$\frac{13.6{eV}}{\left( \frac{1}{p} \right)^{2}}$

where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137. A furtherproduct of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energyhydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce anincreased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energyhydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce acompound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

The novel hydrogen compositions of matter can comprise:

-   -   (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species        (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having        a binding energy        -   (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding            ordinary hydrogen species, or        -   (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species            for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is            unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen            species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at            ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP),            or is negative; and    -   (b) at least one other element. The compounds of the present        disclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding        energy hydrogen compounds.”

By “other element” in this context is meant an element other than anincreased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element canbe an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. Inone group of compounds, the other element and the increased bindingenergy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, theother element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are chargedsuch that the other element provides the balancing charge to form aneutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized bymolecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized byionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species(hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a totalenergy

-   -   (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary        hydrogen species, or    -   (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for        which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or        is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total        energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or        is negative; and

(b) at least one other element.

The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies toremove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogenspecies according to the present disclosure has a total energy greaterthan the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species.The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to thepresent disclosure is also referred to as an “increased binding energyhydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen specieshaving an increased total energy may have a first electron bindingenergy less that the first electron binding energy of the correspondingordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eqs. (39)and(40) for p=24 has a first binding energy that is less than the firstbinding energy of ordinary hydride ion, while the total energy of thehydride ion of Eqs. (39) and (40) for p=24 is much greater than thetotal energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species(hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having abinding energy

-   -   (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding        ordinary hydrogen species, or    -   (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for        which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or        is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding        energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is        negative; and

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the presentdisclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energyhydrogen compounds.”

The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reactingone or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom,a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energyhydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion otherthan an increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species(hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a totalenergy

-   -   (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular        hydrogen, or    -   (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for        which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or        is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total        energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is        negative; and

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the presentdisclosure are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energyhydrogen compounds.”

In an embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least oneincreased binding energy hydrogen species chosen from (a) hydride ionhaving a binding energy according to Eqs. (39) and (40) that is greaterthan the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 up to23, and less for p=24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or“hydrino hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energygreater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or “hydrino”); (c)hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or “dihydrino”); and(d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about16.3 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or “dihydrinomolecular ion”). In the present disclosure, increased binding energyhydrogen species and compounds is also referred to as lower-energyhydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise an increased bindingenergy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower-energy hydrogen species.

IV. Additional MH-Type Catalysts and Reactions

In general, MH type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos provided bythe breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from theatom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the bondenergy and ionization energies of the t electrons is approximatelym·27.2 eV where m is an integer are given in TABLE 3A. Each MH catalystis given in the first column and the corresponding M-H bond energy isgiven in column two. The atom M of the MH species given in the firstcolumn is ionized to provide the net enthalpy of reaction of m·27.2 eVwith the addition of the bond energy in column two. The enthalpy of thecatalyst is given in the eighth column where m is given in the ninthcolumn. The electrons that participate in ionization are given with theionization potential (also called ionization energy or binding energy).For example, the bond energy of NaH, 1.9245 eV, is given in column two.The ionization potential of the nth electron of the atom or ion isdesignated by IP_(n) and is given by the CRC. That is for example,Na+5.13908 eV→Na⁺+e⁻ and Na⁺+47.2864 eV→Na²⁺+e⁻. The first ionizationpotential, IP₁=5.13908 eV, and the second ionization potential,IP₂=47.2864 eV, are given in the second and third columns, respectively.The net enthalpy of reaction for the breakage of the NaH bond and thedouble ionization of Na is 54.35 eV as given in the eighth column, andm=2 in Eq. (35) as given in the ninth column. The bond energy of BaH is1.98991 eV and IP₁, IP₂, and IP₃ are 5.2117 eV, 10.00390 eV, and 37.3eV, respectively. The net enthalpy of reaction for the breakage of theBaH bond and the triple ionization of Ba is 54.5 eV as given in theeighth column, and m=2 in Eq. (35) as given in the ninth column. Thebond energy of SrH is 1.70 eV and IP₁, IP₂, IP₃, IP₄, and IP₅ are5.69484 eV, 11.03013 eV, 42.89 eV, 57 eV, and 71.6 eV, respectively. Thenet enthalpy of reaction for the breakage of the SrH bond and theionization of Sr to Sr⁵⁺ is 190 eV as given in the eighth column, andm=7 in Eq. (35) as given in the ninth column.

TABLE 3A MH type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpyof reaction of approximately m · 27.2 eV. Energies are in eV. M-H BondCatalyst Energy IP₁ IP₂ IP₃ IP₄ IP₅ Enthalpy m AlH 2.98 5.98576818.82855 27.79 1 AsH 2.84 9.8152 18.633 28.351 50.13 109.77 4 BaH 1.995.21170 10.00390 37.3 54.50 2 BiH 2.936 7.2855 16.703 26.92 1 CdH 0.728.99367 16.90832 26.62 1 ClH 4.4703 12.96763 23.8136 39.61 80.86 3 CoH2.538 7.88101 17.084 27.50 1 GeH 2.728 7.89943 15.93461 26.56 1 InH2.520 5.78636 18.8703 27.18 1 NaH 1.925 5.139076 47.2864 54.35 2 NbH2.30 6.75885 14.32 25.04 38.3 50.55 137.26 5 OH 4.4556 13.61806 35.1173053.3 2 OH 4.4556 13.61806 35.11730 54.9355 108.1 4 OH 4.4556 13.61806 +35.11730 + 80.39 3 13.6 KE 13.6 KE RhH 2.50 7.4589 18.08 28.0 1 RuH2.311 7.36050 16.76 26.43 1 SH 3.67 10.36001 23.3379 34.79 47.22272.5945 191.97 7 SbH 2.484 8.60839 16.63 27.72 1 SeH 3.239 9.75239 21.1930.8204 42.9450 107.95 4 SiH 3.040 8.15168 16.34584 27.54 1 SnH 2.7367.34392 14.6322 30.5060 55.21 2 SrH 1.70 5.69484 11.03013 42.89 57 71.6190 7 TlH 2.02 6.10829 20.428 28.56 1

In other embodiments, MH⁻ type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinosprovided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, the breakageof the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M eachto a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transferenergy comprising the difference of electron affinity (EA) of MH and A,M-H bond energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M isapproximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer are given in TABLE 3B.Each MH⁻ catalyst, the acceptor A, the electron affinity of MH, theelectron affinity of A, and the M-H bond energy, are is given in thefirst, second, third and fourth columns, respectively. The electrons ofthe corresponding atom M of MH that participate in ionization are givenwith the ionization potential (also called ionization energy or bindingenergy) in the subsequent columns and the enthalpy of the catalyst andthe corresponding integer m are given in the last column. For example,the electron affinities of OH and H are 1.82765 eV and 0.7542 eV,respectively, such that the electron transfer energy is 1.07345 eV asgiven in the fifth column. The bond energy of OH is 4.4556 eV is givenin column six. The ionization potential of the nth electron of the atomor ion is designated by IP_(n). That is for example, O+13.61806 eV→O⁺+e⁻and O⁺+35.11730 eV→O²⁺+e⁻. The first ionization potential, IP₁=13.61806eV, and the second ionization potential, IP₂=35.11730 eV, are given inthe seventh and eighth columns, respectively. The net enthalpy of theelectron transfer reaction, the breakage of the OH bond, and the doubleionization of O is 54.27 eV as given in the eleventh column, and m=2 inEq. (35) as given in the twelfth column. In other embodiments, thecatalyst for H to form hydrinos is provided by the ionization of anegative ion such that the sum of its EA plus the ionization energy ofone or more electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer.Alternatively, the first electron of the negative ion may be transferredto an acceptor followed by ionization of at least one more electron suchthat the sum of the electron transfer energy plus the ionization energyof one or more electrons is approximately m·27.2 eV where m is aninteger. The electron acceptor may be H.

TABLE 3B MH⁻ type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpyof reaction of approximately m · 27.2 eV. Energies are in eV. M-HAcceptor EA EA Electron Bond Catalyst (A) (MH) (A) Transfer Energy IP₁IP₂ IP₃ IP₄ Enthalpy m OH⁻ H 1.82765 0.7542 1.07345 4.4556 13.6180635.11730 54.27 2 SiH⁻ H 1.277 0.7542 0.5228 3.040 8.15168 16.34584 28.061 CoH⁻ H 0.671 0.7542 −0.0832 2.538 7.88101 17.084 27.42 1 NiH⁻ H 0.4810.7542 −0.2732 2.487 7.6398 18.16884 28.02 1 SeH⁻ H 2.2125 0.7542 1.45833.239 9.75239 21.19 30.8204 42.9450 109.40 4

In other embodiments, MH⁺ type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinosare provided by the transfer of an electron from an donor A which may benegatively charged, the breakage of the M-H bond, and the ionization oft electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such thatthe sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference ofionization energies of MH and A, bond M-H energy, and ionizationenergies of the t electrons from M is approximately m·27.2 eV where m isan integer.

In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises any species such as an atom,positively or negatively charged ion, positively or negatively chargedmolecular ion, molecule, excimer, compound, or any combination thereofin the ground or excited state that is capable of accepting energy ofm·27.2 eV, m=1,2,3,4, . . . . (Eq. (5)). It is believed that the rate ofcatalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closelymatched to m·27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a netenthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV aresuitable for most applications. In the case of the catalysis of hydrinoatoms to lower energy states, the enthalpy of reaction of m·27.2 eV (Eq.(5)) is relativistically corrected by the same factor as the potentialenergy of the hydrino atom. In an embodiment, the catalyst resonantlyand radiationless accepts energy from atomic hydrogen. In an embodiment,the accepted energy decreases the magnitude of the potential energy ofthe catalyst by about the amount transferred from atomic hydrogen.Energetic ions or electrons may result due to the conservation of thekinetic energy of the initially bound electrons. At least one atomic Hserves as a catalyst for at least one other wherein the 27.2 eVpotential energy of the acceptor is cancelled by the transfer or 27.2 eVfrom the donor H atom being catalyzed. The kinetic energy of theacceptor catalyst H may be conserved as fast protons or electrons.Additionally, the intermediate state (Eq. (7)) formed in the catalyzed Hdecays with the emission of continuum energy in the form of radiation orinduced kinetic energy in a third body. These energy releases may resultin current flow in the CIHT cell of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment, at least one of a molecule or positively or negativelycharged molecular ion serves as a catalyst that accepts about m27.2 eVfrom atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energyof the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion byabout m27.2 eV. For example, the potential energy of H₂O given in MillsGUTCP is

$\begin{matrix}{V_{e} = {{\left( \frac{3}{2} \right)\frac{{- 2}e^{2}}{8\pi\varepsilon_{0}\sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}\ln\frac{a + \sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}{a - \sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}} = {{- 8}{1.8}715{eV}}}} & (43)\end{matrix}$

A molecule that accepts m·27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in themagnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy mayserve as a catalyst. For example, the catalysis reaction (m=3) regardingthe potential energy of H₂O is

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{81.6{eV}} + {H_{2}O} + {H\left\lbrack a_{H} \right\rbrack}}\rightarrow{{2H_{fast}^{+}} + O^{-} + e^{-} + {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {81.6{eV}}} \right. & (44)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}\left. {H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {122.4{eV}}} \right. & (45)\end{matrix}$ $\begin{matrix}\left. {{2H_{fast}^{+}} + O^{-} + e^{-}}\rightarrow{{H_{2}O} + {81.6{eV}}} \right. & (46)\end{matrix}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{matrix}\left. {H\left\lbrack a_{H} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack} + {81.6{eV}} + {122.4{eV}}} \right. & (47)\end{matrix}$

wherein

$H*\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack$

has a radius of the hydrogen atom and a central field equivalent to 4times that of a proton and

$H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{4} \right\rbrack$

is the corresponding stable state with the radius of ¼ that of H. As theelectron undergoes radial acceleration from the radius of the hydrogenatom to a radius of ¼ this distance, energy is released ascharacteristic light emission or as third-body kinetic energy. Based onthe 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization in going from ice at0° C. to water at 100° C., the average number of H bonds per watermolecule in boiling water is 3.6. Thus, in an embodiment, H₂O must beformed chemically as isolated molecules with suitable activation energyin order to serve as a catalyst to form hydrinos. In an embodiment, theH₂O catalyst is nascent H₂O.

In an embodiment, at least one of nH, O, nO, O₂, OH, and H₂O (n=integer)may serve as the catalyst. The product of H and OH as the catalyst maybe H(1/5) wherein the catalyst enthalpy is about 108.8 eV. The productof the reaction of H and H₂O as the catalyst may be H(1/4). The hydrinoproduct may further react to lower states. The product of H(1/4) and Has the catalyst may be H(1/5) wherein the catalyst enthalpy is about27.2 eV. The product of H(1/4) and OH as the catalyst may be H(1/6)wherein the catalyst enthalpy is about 54.4 eV. The product of H(1/5)and H as the catalyst may be H(1/6) wherein the catalyst enthalpy isabout 27.2 eV.

Additionally, OH may serve as a catalyst since the potential energy ofOH is

$\begin{matrix}{V_{e} = {{\left( \frac{3}{4} \right)\frac{{- 2}e^{2}}{8\pi ɛ_{0}\sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}\ln\frac{a + \sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}{a - \sqrt{a^{2} - b^{2}}}} = {{- 4}{0.9}2709\mspace{14mu}{eV}}}} & (48)\end{matrix}$

The difference in energy between the H states p=1 and p=2 is 40.8 eV.Thus, OH may accept about 40.8 eV from H to serve as a catalyst to formH(1/2).

Similarly to H₂O, the potential energy of the amide functional group NH₂given in Mills GUTCP is −78.77719 eV. From the CRC, ΔH for the reactionof NH₂ to form KNH₂ calculated from each corresponding ΔH_(f) is(−128.9-184.9) kJ/mole=−313.8 kJ/mole (3.25 eV). From the CRC, ΔH forthe reaction of NH₂ to form NaNH₂ calculated from each correspondingΔH_(f) is (−123.8-184.9) kJ/mole=−308.7 kJ/mole (3.20 eV). From the CRC,ΔH for the reaction of NH₂ to form LiNH₂ calculated from eachcorresponding ΔH_(f) is (−179.5-184.9) kJ/mole=−364.4 kJ/mole (3.78 eV).Thus, the net enthalpy that may be accepted by alkali amides MNH₂ (M=K,Na, Li) serving as H catalysts to form hydrinos are about 82.03 eV,81.98 eV, and 82.56 eV (m=3 in Eq. (5)), respectively, corresponding tothe sum of the potential energy of the amide group and the energy toform the amide from the amide group. The hydrino product such asmolecular hydrino may cause an upfield matrix shift observed by meanssuch as MAS NMR.

Similarly to H₂O, the potential energy of the H₂S functional group givenin Mills GUTCP is −72.81 eV. The cancellation of this potential energyalso eliminates the energy associated with the hybridization of the 3pshell. This hybridization energy of 7.49 eV is given by the ratio of thehydride orbital radius and the initial atomic orbital radius times thetotal energy of the shell. Additionally, the energy change of the S3pshell due to forming the two S—H bonds of 1.10 eV is included in thecatalyst energy. Thus, the net enthalpy of H₂S catalyst is 81.40 eV (m=3in Eq. (5)). H₂S catalyst may be formed from MHS (M=alkali) by thereaction

$\begin{matrix}{{2{M{HS}}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} M_{2}S} + {H_{2}S}} & (49)\end{matrix}$

This reversible reaction may form H₂S in an active catalytic state inthe transition state to product H₂S that may catalyze H to hydrino. Thereaction mixture may comprise reactants that form H₂S and a source ofatomic H. The hydrino product such as molecular hydrino may cause anupfield matrix shift observed by means such as MAS NMR.

Furthermore, atomic oxygen is a special atom with two unpaired electronsat the same radius equal to the Bohr radius of atomic hydrogen. Whenatomic H serves as the catalyst, 27.2 eV of energy is accepted such thatthe kinetic energy of each ionized H serving as a catalyst for anotheris 13.6 eV. Similarly, each of the two electrons of O can be ionizedwith 13.6 eV of kinetic energy transferred to the O ion such that thenet enthalpy for the breakage of the O—H bond of OH with the subsequentionization of the two outer unpaired electrons is 80.4 eV as given inTABLE 3. During the ionization of OH⁻ to OH, the energy match for thefurther reaction to H(1/4) and O²⁺+2e⁻ may occur wherein the 204 eV ofenergy released contributes to the CIHT cell's electrical power. Thereaction is given as follows:

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{80.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}} + {OH} + {H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack}}\rightarrow{O_{fast}^{2 +} + {2e^{-}} + {H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {p + 3} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {\left( {p + 3} \right)^{2} - p^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (50) \\\left. {O_{fast}^{2 +} + {2e^{-}}}\rightarrow{O + {80.4\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (51)\end{matrix}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{matrix}\left. {H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{p} \right\rbrack}\rightarrow{{H\left\lbrack \frac{a_{H}}{\left( {p + 3} \right)} \right\rbrack} + {{\left\lbrack {\left( {p + 3} \right)^{2} - p^{2}} \right\rbrack \cdot 13.6}\mspace{14mu}{eV}}} \right. & (52)\end{matrix}$

where m=3 in Eq. (5). The kinetic energy could also be conserved in hotelectrons. The observation of H population inversion in water vaporplasmas is evidence of this mechanism. The hydrino product such asmolecular hydrino may cause an upfield matrix shift observed by meanssuch as MAS NMR. Other methods of identifying the molecular hydrinoproduct such as FTIR, Raman, and XPS are given in the presentdisclosure.

In an embodiment wherein oxygen or a compound comprising oxygenparticipates in the oxidation or reduction reaction, O₂ may serve as acatalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygenmolecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionizationenergies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV,respectively. The reactions O₂→O+O²⁺, O₂→O+O³⁺, and 2O→2O⁺ provide a netenthalpy of about 2, 4, and 1 times E_(h), respectively, and comprisecatalyst reactions to form hydrino by accepting these energies from H tocause the formation of hydrinos.

In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as aninverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm⁻¹. The peak is enhancedby using a conductive material comprising roughness features or particlesize comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports aSurface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak.

V. Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Cell

A catalyst-induced-hydrino-transition (CIHT) cell 400 shown in FIG. 1comprises a cathode compartment 401 with a cathode 405, an anodecompartment 402 with an anode 410, optionally a salt bridge 420, andreactants that comprise at least one bipolar plate. The reactantsconstitute hydrino reactants during cell operation with separateelectron flow and ion mass transport to generate at least one ofelectricity and thermal energy. The reactants comprise at least twocomponents chosen from: (a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) a source ofoxygen, (c) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising atleast one of the group chosen from nH, O, O₂, OH, OH⁻, and nascent H₂O,wherein n is an integer; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogenor atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants to form at least one of thesource of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and theatomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis ofatomic hydrogen, wherein the combination of the cathode, anode,reactants, and bipolar plate permit the catalysis of atomic hydrogen toform hydrinos to propagate that maintains a chemical potential orvoltage between each cathode and corresponding anode to cause a externalcurrent to flow through the load 425, and the system further comprisingan electrolysis system. In another embodiment, the CIHT cell produces atleast one of electrical and thermal power gain over that of an appliedelectrolysis power through the electrodes 405 and 410. In an embodiment,electrochemical power system comprises at least one of a porouselectrode capable of gas sparging, a gas diffusion electrode, and ahydrogen permeable anode wherein at least one of oxygen and H₂O issupplied form source 430 through passage 430 to the cathode 405 and H2is supplied from source 431 through passage 461 to the anode 420.

In certain embodiments, an electrochemical power system that generatesat least one of electricity and thermal energy comprising a vessel, thevessel comprises at least one cathode; at least one anode; at least onebipolar plate; and reactants comprising at least two components chosenfrom: (a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) a source of oxygen; (c) atleast one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising at least one ofthe group chosen from nH, O, O₂, OH, OH—, and nascent H₂O, wherein n isan integer, and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomichydrogen; one or more reactants to form at least one of the source ofcatalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomichydrogen, and one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis of atomichydrogen, the electrochemical power system further comprising anelectrolysis system and an anode regeneration system.

In other embodiments, an electrochemical power system that generates atleast one of a voltage and electricity and thermal energy comprises avessel, the vessel comprising at least one cathode; at least one anode,at least one bipolar plate, and reactants comprising at least twocomponents chosen from: (a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) a source ofoxygen, (c) at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising atleast one of the group chosen from nH, O, O₂, OH, OH—, and nascent H₂O,wherein n is an integer; and (d) at least one source of atomic hydrogenor atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants to form at least one of thesource of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and theatomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis ofatomic hydrogen.

In an embodiment, at least one reactant is formed during cell operationwith separate electron flow and ion mass transport. In an embodiment,the combination of the cathode, anode, reactants, and bipolar platepermit the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos to propagatethat maintains a chemical potential or voltage between each cathode andcorresponding anode. In addition, the system can further comprising anelectrolysis system, if not already present. In an embodiment,electrochemical power system comprises at least one of a porouselectrode, a gas diffusion electrode, and a hydrogen permeable anodewherein at least one of oxygen and H₂O is supplied to the cathode and H₂is supplied to the anode. The electrochemical power system may compriseat least one of a hydrided anode and a closed hydrogen reservoir havingat least one surface comprising a hydrogen permeable anode. Theelectrochemical power system may comprise back-to-back hydrogenpermeable anodes with counter cathodes comprising a unit of a stack ofcells that are electrically connected in at least one manner of seriesand parallel. In an embodiment, the electrochemical power system furthercomprises at least one gas supply system each comprising a manifold, gasline, and gas channels connected to the electrode. In an embodiment, theanode comprises Mo that is regenerated during the charging phase fromelectrolyte reactants performing the regeneration reaction steps of:

-   -   MoO₃+3MgBr₂ to 2MoBr₃+3MgO (−54 kJ/mole (298 K) −46 (600K))    -   MoBr₃ to Mo+3/2Br₂ (284 kJ/mole 0.95V/3 electrons)    -   MoBr₃+Ni to MoNi+3/2Br₂ (283 kJ/mole 0.95V/3 electrons)    -   MgO+Br₂+H₂ to MgBr₂+H₂O (−208 kJ/mole (298 K) −194 kJ/mole (600        K)).        In an embodiment, the anode comprises Mo that is regenerated        during the charging phase from electrolyte reactants comprising        at least one of MoO₂, MoO₃, Li₂O, and Li₂MoO₄.

The electrochemical power systems of the present disclosure may comprisea closed hydrogen reservoir having at least one surface comprising ahydrogen permeable anode. The electrochemical power systems of thepresent disclosure may comprise back-to-back hydrogen permeable anodeswith counter cathodes comprising a unit of a stack of cells that areelectrically connected in at least one manner of series and parallel. Inan embodiment, the electrochemical power system cathode comprises atleast one of a capillary system and radial gas channels withcircumferential perforations, a porous electrode, and a porous layer totransport at least one of H₂O and O₂ towards the center of the cellrelative to the periphery. The hydrogen permeable anode may comprise atleast one of Mo, a Mo alloy, MoNi, MoCu, TZM, HAYNES® 242® alloy, Ni,Co, a Ni alloy, NiCo, and other transition and inner transition metalsand alloys, and CuCo. In embodiments, the membrane thickness is in atleast one range chosen from about 0.0001 cm to 0.25 cm, 0.001 cm to 0.1cm, and 0.005 cm to 0.05 cm. The hydrogen pressure supplied to thepermeable or gas sparging anode may be maintained in the range of atleast one of about 1 Torr to 500 atm, 10 Torr to 100 atm, and 100 Torrto 5 atm, and the hydrogen permeation or sparging rate may be in therange of at least one of about 1×10⁻¹³ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁴ mole s⁻¹cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹² mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁵ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹¹ mole s⁻¹cm⁻²to 1×10⁻⁶ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹⁰ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁷ mole s⁻¹cm⁻², and 1×10⁻⁹ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁴ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻². In an embodiment,the hydrogen permeable anode comprises a highly permeable membranecoated with a material that is effective at facilitating the catalysisof atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos. The coating material of thehydrogen permeable anode may comprise at least one of Mo, a Mo alloy,MoNi, MoCu, MoCo, MoB, MoC, MoSi, MoCuB, MoNiB, MoSiB, Co, CoCu, CoNi,and Ni and the H permeable material may comprise at least one of Ni(H₂),V(H₂), Ti(H₂), Nb(H₂), Pd(H₂), PdAg(H₂), Fe(H₂), Ta(H₂), stainless steel(SS), and 430 SS (H₂). In an embodiment, the electrolysis system of theelectrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzes H₂O to providea source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen and discharges the cellsuch that there is a gain in the net energy balance of the cycle.

In an embodiment, the reactants of the cell comprise at least oneelectrolyte chosen from: at least one molten hydroxide; at least oneeutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and atleast one other compound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide anda salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and halide salt; atleast one mixture of an alkaline hydroxide and an alkaline halide;LiOH—LiBr, LiOH—NaOH, LiOH—LiBr—NaOH, LiOH—LiX—NaOH, LiOH—LiX,NaOH—NaBr, NaOH—NaI, NaOH—NaX, and KOH—KX, wherein X represents ahalide), at least one matrix, and at least one additive. The additivemay comprise a compound that is a source of a common ion of at least oneanode corrosion product wherein the corresponding common ion effect atleast partially prevents the anode from corroding. The source of acommon ion may prevent the formation of at least one of CoO, NiO, andMoO2. In an embodiment, the additive comprises at least one of acompound comprising a metal cation of the anode and an anion, hydroxide,a halide, oxide, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, chromate,perchlorate, and periodate and a compound comprising the matrix and anoxide, cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesiumoxide, CuO, CrO₄, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeOor Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃, P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂,Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, and CrO₃.In embodiments, the cell temperature that maintains at least one of amolten state of the electrolyte and the membrane in a hydrogen permeablestate is in at least one range chosen from about 25° C. to 2000° C.,about 100° C. to 1000° C., about 200° C. to 750° C., and about 250° C.to 500° C., the cell temperature above the electrolyte melting point inat least one range of about 0° C. to 1500° C. higher than the meltingpoint, 0° C. to 1000° C. higher than the melting point, 0° C. to 500° C.higher than the melting point, 0° C. to 250° C. higher than the meltingpoint, and 0° C. to 100° C. higher than the melting point. In anembodiment, the electrolyte is aqueous and alkaline and at least one ofthe pH of the electrolyte and the cell voltage are controlled toachieved stability of the anode. The cell voltage per cell during theintermittent electrolysis and discharge may be maintained above thepotential that prevents the anode from substantially oxidizing.

In an embodiment, the cell is intermittently switched between charge anddischarge phases, wherein (i) the charging phase comprises at least theelectrolysis of water at electrodes of opposite voltage polarity, and(ii) the discharge phase comprises at least the formation of H₂Ocatalyst at one or both of the electrodes; wherein (i) the role of eachelectrode of each cell as the cathode or anode reverses in switchingback and forth between the charge and discharge phases, and (ii) thecurrent polarity reverses in switching back and forth between the chargeand discharge phases, and wherein the charging comprises at least one ofthe application of an applied current and voltage. In embodiments, atleast one of the applied current and voltage has a waveform comprising aduty cycle in the range of about 0.001% to about 95%; a peak voltage percell within the range of about 0.1 V to 10 V; a peak power density ofabout 0.001 W/cm² to 1000 W/cm², and an average power within the rangeof about 0.0001 W/cm² to 100 W/cm² wherein the applied current andvoltage further comprises at least one of direct voltage, directcurrent, and at least one of alternating current and voltage waveforms,wherein the waveform comprises frequencies within the range of about 1Hz to about 1000 Hz. The waveform of the intermittent cycle may compriseat least one of constant current, power, voltage, and resistance, andvariable current, power, voltage, and resistance for at least one of theelectrolysis and discharging phases of the intermittent cycle. Inembodiments, the parameters for at least one phase of the cyclecomprises: the frequency of the intermittent phase is in at least onerange chosen from about 0.001 Hz to 10 MHz, about 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz,and about 0.01 Hz to 10 kHz; the voltage per cell is in at least onerange chosen from about 0.1 V to 100 V, about 0.3 V to 5 V, about 0.5 Vto 2 V, and about 0.5 V to 1.5 V; the current per electrode area activeto form hydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 1 microampcm⁻² to 10 A cm⁻², about 0.1 milliamp cm⁻² to 5 A cm⁻², and about 1milliamp cm⁻² to 1 A cm⁻²; the power per electrode area active to formhydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 1 microW cm⁻² to 10W cm⁻², about 0.1 milliW cm⁻² to 5 W cm⁻², and about 1 milliW cm⁻² to 1W cm⁻²; the constant current per electrode area active to form hydrinosis in the range of about 1 microamp cm⁻² to 1 A cm⁻²; the constant powerper electrode area active to form hydrinos is in the range of about 1milliW cm⁻² to 1 W cm⁻²; the time interval is in at least one rangechosen from about 10⁻⁴ s to 10,000 s, 10⁻³ s to 1000 s, and 10⁻² s to100 s, and 10⁻¹ s to 10 s; the resistance per cell is in at least onerange chosen from about 1 milliohm to 100 Mohm, about 1 ohm to 1 Mohm,and 10 ohm to 1 kohm; conductivity of a suitable load per electrode areaactive to form hydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 10⁻⁵ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1000 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 100 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻³ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and 10² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and atleast one of the discharge current, voltage, power, or time interval islarger than that of the electrolysis phase to give rise to at least oneof power or energy gain over the cycle. The voltage during discharge maybe maintained above that which prevents the anode from excessivelycorroding.

In an embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises an anode comprising Mo such asMo, MoPt, MoCu, MoNi, MoC, MoB, and MoSi. The electrolyte may comprise amolten salt or alkaline aqueous electrolyte such as aqueous hydroxide orcarbonate. The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide and may furthercomprise a salt mixture such as a eutectic salt mixture or a mixturehaving a composition of approximately that of a eutectic salt mixture,or other mixture that lowers the melting point from that of the highestmelting point compound. The hydroxide may comprise at least one of analkali or alkaline earth hydroxide. The mixture may comprise a halidecompound such as an alkaline or alkaline earth halide. A suitableexemplary molten electrolyte comprises a LiOH—LiBr mixture. Additionalsuitable electrolytes that may be molten mixtures such as molteneutectic mixtures are given in TABLE 4. The molten salt may be run inthe temperature range of about the melting point to a temperature up to500° C. higher. The anode may be protected by supplying H₂ to thesurface by means such as permeation or sparging. The hydrogen may besupplied in the pressure range of about 1 to 100 atm. The supply ratemay be in the range of 0.001 nmoles per sq cm anode surface to 1,000,000nmoles per sq cm anode surface. In an embodiment, the pressure controlsat least one of the permeation and sparge rate. The rate is selected toprotect the anode from corrosion such as oxidative corrosion whileminimizing the corresponding H₂ consumption so that a net electricalenergy may be generated by the cell.

TABLE 4 Molten Salt Electrolytes. AlCl3—CaCl2 AlCl3—CoCl2 AlCl3—FeCl2AlCl3—KCl AlCl3—LiCl AlCl3—MgCl2 AlCl3—MnCl2 AlCl3—NaCl AlCl3—NiCl2AlCl3—ZnCl2 BaCl2—CaCl2 BaCl2—CsCl BaCl2—KCl BaCl2—LiCl BaCl2—MgCl2BaCl2—NaCl BaCl2—RbCl BaCl2—SrCl2 CaCl2—CaF2 CaCl2—CaO CaCl2—CoCl2CaCl2—CsCl CaCl2—FeCl2 CaCl2—FeCl3 CaCl2—KCl CaCl2—LiCl CaCl2—MgCl2CaCl2—MgF2 CaCl2—MnCl2 CaCl2—NaAlCl4 CaCl2—NaCl CaCl2—NiCl2 CaCl2—PbCl2CaCl2—RbCl CaCl2—SrCl2 CaCl2—ZnCl2 CaF2—KCaCl3 CaF2—KF CaF2—LiFCaF2—MgF2 CaF2—NaF CeCl3—CsCl CeCl3—KCl CeCl3—LiCl CeCl3—NaCl CeCl3—RbClCoCl2—FeCl2 CoCl2—FeCl3 CoCl2—KCl CoCl2—LiCl CoCl2—MgCl2 CoCl2—MnCl2CoCl2—NaCl CoCl2—NiCl2 CsBr—CsCl CsBr—CsF CsBr—CsI CsBr—CsNO3 CsBr—KBrCsBr—LiBr CsBr—NaBr CsBr—RbBr CsCl—CsF CsCl—CsI CsCl—CsNO3 CsCl—KClCsCl—LaCl3 CsCl—LiCl CsCl—MgCl2 CsCl—NaCl CsCl—RbCl CsCl—SrCl2 CsF—CsICsF—CsNO3 CsF—KF CsF—LiF CsF—NaF CsF—RbF CsI—KI CsI—LiI CsI—NaI CsI—RbICsNO3—CsOH CsNO3—KNO3 CsNO3—LiNO3 CsNO3—NaNO3 CsNO3—RbNO3 CsOH—KOHCsOH—LiOH CsOH—NaOH CsOH—RbOH FeCl2—FeCl3 FeCl2—KCl FeCl2—LiClFeCl2—MgCl2 FeCl2—MnCl2 FeCl2—NaCl FeCl2—NiCl2 FeCl3—LiCl FeCl3—MgCl2FeCl3—MnCl2 FeCl3—NiCl2 K2CO3—K2SO4 K2CO3—KF K2CO3—KNO3 K2CO3—KOHK2CO3—Li2CO3 K2CO3—Na2CO3 K2SO4—Li2SO4 K2SO4—Na2SO4 KAlCl4—NaAlCl4KAlCl4—NaCl KBr—KCl KBr—KF KBr—KI KBr—KNO3 KBr—KOH KBr—LiBr KBr—NaBrKBr—RbBr KCl—K2CO3 KCl—K2SO4 KCl—KF KCl—KI KCl—KNO3 KCl—KOH KCl—LiClKCl—LiF KCl—MgCl2 KCl—MnCl2 KCl—NaAlCl4 KCl—NaCl KCl—NiCl2 KCl—PbCl2KCl—RbCl KCl—SrCl2 KCl—ZnCl2 KF—K2SO4 KF—KI KF—KNO3 KF—KOH KF—LiFKF—MgF2 KF—NaF KF—RbF KFeCl3—NaCl KI—KNO3 KI—KOH KI—LiI KI—NaI KI—RbIKMgCl3—LiCl KMgCl3—NaCl KMnCl3—NaCl KNO3—K2SO4 KNO3—KOH KNO3—LiNO3KNO3—NaNO3 KNO3—RbNO3 KOH—K2SO4 KOH—LiOH KOH—NaOH KOH—RbOH LaCl3—KClLaCl3—LiCl LaCl3—NaCl LaCl3—RbCl Li2CO3—Li2SO4 Li2CO3—LiF Li2CO3—LiNO3Li2CO3—LiOH Li2CO3—Na2CO3 Li2SO4—Na2SO4 LiAlCl4—NaAlCl4 LiBr—LiClLiBr—LiF LiBr—LiI LiBr—LiNO3 LiBr—LiOH LiBr—NaBr LiBr—RbBr LiCl—Li2CO3LiCl—Li2SO4 LiCl—LiF LiCl—LiI LiCl—LiNO3 LiCl—LiOH LiCl—MgCl2 LiCl—MnCl2LiCl—NaCl LiCl—NiCl2 LiCl—RbCl LiCl—SrCl2 LiF—Li2SO4 LiF—LiI LiF—LiNO3LiF—LiOH LiF—MgF2 LiF—NaCl LiF—NaF LiF—RbF LiI—LiOH LiI—NaI LiI—RbILiNO3—Li2SO4 LiNO3—LiOH LiNO3—NaNO3 LiNO3—RbNO3 LiOH—Li2SO4 LiOH—NaOHLiOH—RbOH MgCl2—MgF2 MgCl2—MgO MgCl2—MnCl2 MgCl2—NaCl MgCl2—NiCl2MgCl2—RbCl MgCl2—SrCl2 MgCl2—ZnCl2 MgF2—MgO MgF2—NaF MnCl2—NaClMnCl2—NiCl2 Na2CO3—Na2SO4 Na2CO3—NaF Na2CO3—NaNO3 Na2CO3—NaOH NaBr—NaClNaBr—NaF NaBr—NaI NaBr—NaNO3 NaBr—NaOH NaBr—RbBr NaCl—Na2CO3 NaCl—Na2SO4NaCl—NaF NaCl—NaI NaCl—NaNO3 NaCl—NaOH NaCl—NiCl2 NaCl—PbCl2 NaCl—RbClNaCl—SrCl2 NaCl—ZnCl2 NaF—Na2SO4 NaF—NaI NaF—NaNO3 NaF—NaOH NaF—RbFNaI—NaNO3 NaI—NaOH NaI—RbI NaNO3—Na2SO4 NaNO3—NaOH NaNO3—RbNO3NaOH—Na2SO4 NaOH—RbOH RbBr—RbCl RbBr—RbF RbBr—RbI RbBr—RbNO3 RbCl—RbFRbCl—RbI RbCl—RbOH RbCl—SrCl2 RbF—RbI RbNO3—RbOH CaCl2—CaH2

In an embodiment, the hydrogen electrode, and optionally the oxygenelectrode, is replaced by an element of a bipolar plate 507 as shown inFIG. 2. The cell design may be based on a planar square geometricalconfiguration wherein the cells may be stacked to build voltage. Eachcell may form a repeating unit comprising an anode current collector,porous anode, electrolyte matrix, porous cathode, and cathode currentcollector. One cell may be separated from the next by a separator thatmay comprise a bipolar plate that serves as both the gas separator andseries current collector. The plate may have a cross-flow gasconfiguration or internal manifolding. As shown in FIG. 2,interconnections or bipolar plates 507 separate the anode 501 from theadjacent cathode 502 in a CIHT cell stack 500 comprising a plurality ofindividual CIHT cells. The anode or H₂ plate 504 may be corrugated orcomprise channels 505 that distribute hydrogen supplied through amanifold with ports 503. The plate 504 with channels 505 substitutes forthe hydrogen permeable membrane or intermittent electrolysis cathode(discharge anode) of other embodiments. The ports may receive hydrogenfrom a manifold along the ports 503 that are in turn is supplied by ahydrogen source such as a tank. The plate 504 may further ideally evenlydistribute hydrogen to bubble or sparge into active areas whereinelectrochemical reactions occur. The bipolar plate may further comprisean oxygen plate of the bipolar plate having a similar structure as thatof the H₂ plate to distribute oxygen to active areas wherein an oxygenmanifold supplies oxygen from a supply along oxygen manifold and ports506. These corrugated or channeled plates are electrically conductingand are connected with anode and cathode current collectors in theactive areas and maintain electrical contact. In an embodiment, all theinterconnection or bipolar plates constitute the gas distributionnetwork allowing separation of anodic and cathodic gasses. Wet seals maybe formed by extension of the electrolyte/matrix such asLiOH—LiBr—Li₂AlO₃ or MgO tile pressed between two individual plates. Theseals may prevent leakage of the reactant gases. The electrolyte maycomprise a pressed pellet of the present disclosure. The pressure toform an electrolyte pellet such as one comprising a hydroxide such as analkali hydroxide such as LiOH and a halide such an alkali halide such asLiBr and a matrix such as MgO is in the range of about 1 ton to 500 tonsper square inch. The stack may further comprise tie rods that holdpressure plates at the ends of the stack to apply pressure to the cellsto maintain a desire contact between the electrolyte such as a pelletelectrolyte and the electrodes. In an embodiment wherein the electrolyteor a component such as a hydroxide such as LiOH migrates by means suchas evaporation, the electrolyte may be collected and recycled. Themigrating species may be collected in a structure such as a collectingstructure or a wicking structure that absorbs the electrolyte, and therecycling may be achieved thermally by means such as heating thecollecting or wicking structure to cause a reverse migration.

The CIHT cell system may comprise a modified conventional fuel cell suchas a modified alkaline or molten carbonate-type. In an embodiment, theCIHT cell comprises a stack of bipolar plates such as shown in FIG. 2wherein at least one of oxygen and H₂O is supplied to the cathode and H₂is supplied to the anode. The gases may be provided by diffusion througha porous or diffusion electrode, and H₂ may also be provided bypermeation through a suitable hydrogen permeable electrode. The hydrogenpermeable electrode may comprise at least one of Mo, a Mo alloy such asMoNi, MoCu, TZM, and HAYNES® 242® alloy, Ni, Co, a Ni alloy such asNiCo, and other transition and inner transition metals and alloys suchas CuCo. The application of H₂ is in an amount sufficient to retardanode corrosion while maintaining electrical power gain. The permeationanode may be run at increasing current densities with proportionalincreases in hydrogen permeation rate. The hydrogen permeation rate maybe controlled by at least one of increasing the hydrogen pressure to themembrane, increasing the cell temperature, decreasing the membranethickness, and changing the membrane composition such as the wt % s ofmetals of an the alloy such as a Mo alloy. In an embodiment, a hydrogendissociator such as a noble metal such as Pt or Pd is coated on theinterior of the permeation anode such as a Mo or MoCu anode to increasethe amount of atomic H to increase the permeation rate. The gas pressuremay be any desired to maintain at least one of the desired power outputfrom each cell, H₂ permeation rate, H₂ protection of the anode, oxygenreduction rate at the cathode. At least one of the hydrogen and oxygenpressure may be in the range of at least one of about 0.01 atm to 1000atm, 0.1 atm to 100 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm.

In the event that the anode undergoes corrosion, the metal may beelectroplated from the electrolyte. The Mo corrosion product may besoluble in the electrolyte. In an embodiment, the electrolyte furthercomprises a regeneration compound that facilitates electrodepositing ofthe Mo corrosion product from the electrolyte to the anode and permits athermodynamic cycle to reform the regeneration compound. Theregeneration compound may react with the Mo corrosion product to form anelectrodepositing compound that is soluble in the electrolyte andcapable of being electroplated onto the anode. The reaction may involvean anion exchange reaction such as an oxide-halide exchange reaction toadditionally form an oxide product. The electrodepositing compound mayfacilitate a favorable thermodynamic cycle of in situ regeneration ofthe anode. Hydrogen may be added to the anode to make the cyclethermodynamically favorable. In an embodiment, the steps comprise (1)the reaction of the corrosion product, a metal oxide of the anode metal,with a regeneration compound of the electrolyte to form anelectrodepositing compound comprising a cation of the anode metal and acounter ion capable of being oxidized to form an oxidant reactant toregenerate the regeneration compound. The reaction may additionally formthe oxide product. Exemplary anode metals are Mo and Mo alloys.Exemplary regeneration compounds are MgBr₂ and MgI₂. (2) the reductionof the cation causing electrodepositing of the anode metal and theoxidation of the counterion to form the oxidant reactant by applying asuitable voltage and current; exemplary oxidant reactants are Br₂ andI₂, and (3) the reaction of at least the oxidant reactant and optionallyH₂ where thermodynamically necessary with the oxide product to form theregeneration compound and additionally H₂O wherein required to cause thereaction to be thermodynamically favorable. In an embodiment, theregeneration compound such as at least one of MgBr₂ and MgI₂ ismaintained in the concentration range of about 0.001 mole % to 50 mole%. The H₂ supply rate may be in the range of 0.001 nmoles per sq cmanode surface to 1,000,000 nmoles per sq cm anode surface.

In an embodiment, the molten electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr comprisesMgBr₂ as an additive to electro-deposit Mo to anode of the cell having aMo anode wherein the in situ regeneration reactions are:

$\begin{matrix}{{MoO}_{3} + {3{MgBr}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{MoBr}_{3}} + {3{{MgO}\left( {{{- 54}\mspace{14mu}{kJ}\text{/}{mole}\mspace{14mu}\left( {298\mspace{14mu} K} \right)} - {46\left( {600\mspace{14mu} K} \right)}} \right)}}} & (53) \\{{{MoBr}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Mo}} + {3\text{/}2{{Br}_{2}\left( {284\mspace{14mu}{kJ}\text{/}{mole}\mspace{14mu} 0.95\mspace{14mu} V\text{/}3\mspace{14mu}{electrons}} \right)}}} & (54) \\{{MoBr}_{3} + {{Ni}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{MoNi}} + {3\text{/}2{{Br}_{2}\left( {283\mspace{14mu}{kJ}\text{/}{mole}\mspace{14mu} 0.95\mspace{14mu} V\text{/}3\mspace{14mu}{electrons}} \right)}}} & (55) \\{{MgO} + {Br}_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{MgBr}_{2}} + {H_{2}{O\left( {{{- 20}8\mspace{14mu}{kJ}\text{/}{mole}\mspace{14mu}\left( {298\mspace{14mu} K} \right)} - {194\mspace{14mu}{kJ}\text{/}{mole}\mspace{14mu}\left( {600\mspace{14mu} K} \right)}} \right)}}} & (56)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the maximum charge voltage is above that which resultsin the electroplating on Mo or other anode metal back onto the anode.The voltage may be in the range of at least or of about 0.4 V to 10 V,0.5 V to 2 V, and 0.8 V to 1.3 V. The anode may comprise Mo in the formof an alloy or metal mixture such as MoPt, MoNi, MoCo, and MoCu. Thealloy or mixture may enhance the electro-deposition of Mo. In anembodiment, the reaction of Mo with H₂O generates H₂ in addition to thatfrom OH⁻ of the electrolyte; so, the charge voltage is operated abovethat which predominantly electrodeposits Mo onto the anode from Mo ionsin the electrolyte. In an embodiment, separate long duration periods ofcontinuous discharge and continuous charge are maintained such that moreenergy is released during discharge than charge. The charge time may bein the range of at least one of about 0.1 s to 10 days, 60 s to 5 days,and 10 mins to 1 day. The discharge time is longer than thecorresponding charge time. In an embodiment, sufficient anode metal suchas Mo is deposited during charge to replace that lost by corrosion suchthat the electrode is maintained with a constant Mo content at steadystate of the electrode with the electrolyte concentration of Mocompounds.

In an embodiment, the molten electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr comprisesMgI₂ as an additive to electro-deposit Mo to anode of the cell having aMo anode wherein the in situ regeneration reactions are:

$\begin{matrix}{{MoO}_{2} + {2{MgI}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{MoI}_{2}} + I_{2} + {2{{MgO}\left( {{16\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu}\left( {298\mspace{14mu} K} \right)} - {0.35\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu}\left( {600\mspace{14mu} K} \right)}} \right)}}} & (57) \\{{{MoI}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Mo}} + {I_{2}\left( {103\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu} 0.515\mspace{14mu}{V/2}\mspace{14mu}{electrons}} \right)}} & (58) \\{{MoI}_{2} + {{Ni}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{MoNi}} + {I_{2}\left( {102\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu} 0.515\mspace{14mu}{V/2}\mspace{14mu}{electrons}} \right)}} & (59) \\{{MgO} + I_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{MgI}_{2}} + {H_{2}{O\left( {{- 51}\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu}\left( {298\mspace{14mu} K} \right)5\mspace{14mu}{{kJ}/{mole}}\mspace{14mu}\left( {600\mspace{14mu} K} \right)} \right)}}} & (60)\end{matrix}$

The anode may comprise Mo in the form of an alloy or metal mixture suchas MoPt, MoNi, MoCo, and MoCu. The alloy or mixture may enhance theelectro-deposition of Mo.

In an embodiment, the molten electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr comprisesMgSO₄ as an additive to electro-deposit Mo to anode of the cell having aMo anode. The sulfate undergoes an exchange reaction with the oxide ofmolybdenum oxide to form molybdenum sulfate that is permissive of Mobeing electrodeposited on the anode.

In an embodiment, the molten electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr comprises atleast one of MoS₂, MoSe₂, and Li₂MoO₄ as an additive to electro-depositMo to anode of the cell having a Mo anode. In an embodiment, at leastone of sulfide and selenide undergoes an exchange reaction with theoxide of molybdenum oxide to form molybdenum sulfide or molybdenumselenide that is permissive of Mo being electrodeposited on the anode.To prevent oxidation of sulfide to sulfate or selenide to selenate, theoxygen reduction cathode may be replaced by amolten-hydroxide-electrolyte-stable cathode that participates inoxidation-reduction chemistry involving hydroxide that does not requireoxygen such as an oxyhydroxide cathode such as a FeOOH or NiOOH cathode.Exemplary cells are [Mo/LiOH—LiBr—MoS₂/FeOOH],[Mo/LiOH—LiBr—MoSe₂/FeOOH], [Mo/LiOH—LiBr—MoS₂—MoSe₂/FeOOH],[Mo/LiOH—LiBr—Li₂MoO₄—MoS₂/FeOOH], and[Mo/LiOH—LiBr—Li₂MoO₄—MoSe₂—MoS₂/FeOOH] that are sealed or one that hasan inert atmosphere such as an argon atmosphere.

In another embodiment, a compound is added to the electrolyte thatreacts with the anode metal oxide corrosion product to form a compoundthat is soluble in the electrolyte and capable of being electrodepositedon to the anode. In an embodiment of a cell having an anode comprisingMo, Li₂O is to LiOH—LiBr electrolyte. The Li₂O reacts with MoO₃corrosion product to form Li₂MoO₄ that is soluble in the electrolyte andis replated onto the anode. In an embodiment, a sealed cell is suppliedwith dry source of oxygen such as O₂ gas or dry air such that Li₂Oremains unhydrated to LOH. H₂O is formed in the cell during operation;so, dry the flow rate of the dry O₂ source is maintained to achieve aconcentration of H₂O in the cell to permit Li₂O to be available for thereaction to form Li₂MoO₄. In an embodiment, the Li₂O concentration ismaintained in the range of about 0.001 mole % to 50 mole %. H₂O may beadded to the cell to replenish consumed H₂O by cooling the cell to atemperature below that at which H₂O reacts with Mo, adding the desiredamount of H₂O, and then elevating the cell temperature again. Exemplarycells are [Mo/LiOH—LiBr—Li₂MoO₄/NiO (O₂)] and[Mo/LiOH—LiBr—Li₂MoO₄—MoS₂/NiO (O₂)].

In an embodiment, the cell comprises an anode comprising nickel and amolten electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr and additionally a metal halideelectrolyte additive such as a transition metal halide such as a halideof the anode such as a nickel halide such as NiBr₂. In an embodiment,the cell is sealed without addition of oxygen. The cell is maintainedwith addition of H₂O with an H₂O source such as a heated reservoir. Thecathode reaction may be reduction of H₂O to hydroxide and oxygen frominternal electrolysis reactions. The absence of additional externallysupplied oxygen will prevent anode corrosion. The formation of oxygenanions may in turn result in the formation of oxyhydroxide to promotethe hydrino reaction.

Consider the catalyst forming reaction and the counter half-cellreaction that occurred during discharge are given by

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{{Anode}\text{:}{OH}^{-}} + H_{2}}\rightarrow{{H_{2}O} + e^{-} + {H\left( {1\text{/}p} \right)}} \right. & (61) \\\left. {{{Cathode}\text{:}O_{2}} + {2H_{2}O} + {4e^{-}}}\rightarrow{4{OH}^{-}} \right. & (62)\end{matrix}$

The overall reaction may be

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{2H_{2}} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}}}\rightarrow{{H_{2}O} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}p} \right)}}} \right. & (63)\end{matrix}$

wherein H₂O served as the catalyst. Exemplary ion-carrying,electrolyte-H₂O reactions that also result in H₂O electrolysis are

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{Anode}\text{:}2{OH}^{-}}\rightarrow{{2H} + O_{2}^{-} + e^{-}} \right. & (64) \\\left. {{{Cathode}\text{:}O_{2}^{-}} + {H_{2}O} + e^{-}}\rightarrow{{1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {2{OH}^{-}}} \right. & (65) \\\left. {{Anode}\text{:}2{OH}^{-}}\rightarrow{H + {HOO}^{-} + e^{-}} \right. & (66) \\\left. {{{Cathode}\text{:}{HOO}^{-}} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}O} + e^{-}}\rightarrow{{2{OH}^{-}} + {1\text{/}4O_{2}}} \right. & (67) \\\left. {{Anode}\text{:}3{OH}^{-}}\rightarrow{O_{2} + {H_{2}O} + H + {3e^{-}}} \right. & (68) \\\left. {{{Cathode}\text{:}3\text{/}4O_{2}} + {3\text{/}2H_{2}O} + {3e^{-}}}\rightarrow{3{OH}^{-}} \right. & (69)\end{matrix}$

wherein the hydrogen of Eqs. (64), (66), and (68) may react to formhydrinos:

$\begin{matrix}\left. {2H}\rightarrow{2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}} \right. & (70)\end{matrix}$

The overall reactions are

$\begin{matrix}\left. {H_{2}O}\rightarrow{{1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}}} \right. & (71) \\\left. {H_{2}O}\rightarrow{{1\text{/}2O_{2}} + H_{2}} \right. & (72)\end{matrix}$

wherein the hydrogen of Eqs. (64), (66), and (68) may additionally reactto form H₂O catalyst, and the oxygen of Eqs. (65), (67), and (69) mayreact and form OH⁻ according to Eqs. (61) and (62) respectively. Otheroxygen species such as oxide, peroxide, superoxide, and HOO⁻ andcorresponding oxidation-reduction reactions may be involved in thespontaneous electrolysis of H₂O to form at least one of H, catalyst, andhydrinos while carrying the excess current produced by the energyevolved from hydrino formation. In another embodiment, the anodecomprises Mo and the electrolyte additive comprises a molybdenum halide.

In an embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte, anode, and cathodecomprise materials and compounds that cause the formation of HOHcatalyst and H through a metal oxyhydroxide intermediate. The cell maycomprise a molten salt electrolyte such as LiOH—LiBr or an aqueouselectrolyte such as KOH. Exemplary reactions of hydroxides andoxyhydroxides such as those of Ni or Co at the anode to form HOHcatalyst are

$\begin{matrix}{{{Ni}({OH})}_{2} + {{OH}^{-}\mspace{14mu}{to}{\mspace{11mu}\;}{NiOOH}} + {H_{2}O} + e^{-}} & (73) \\{and} & \; \\{{{{Ni}({OH})}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NiO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (74)\end{matrix}$

The reaction or reactions may be at least partially thermally driven. Inan embodiment, the surface of the anode is maintained in a partiallyoxidized state. The oxidized state comprises at least one of hydroxl,oxyhydroxyl, and oxide groups. The groups of the oxidized surface mayparticipate in the formation of at least one of the catalyst to formhydrinos such as HOH and atomic hydrogen wherein the atomic hydrogen mayreact with a species of at least one of the anode and the electrolyte toform at least one of the hydrino catalyst and hydrinos. In anembodiment, at least one of the anode and the electrolyte comprises aspecies or material that supports the partial oxidation. The anode maycomprise a metal, alloy, or mixture that forms the oxidized surfacewherein the oxidized surface may not substantially corrode. The anodemay comprise at least one of a precious metal, noble metal, Pt, Pd, Au,Ir, Ru, Ag, Co, Cu, and Ni that form an oxide coat reversibly. Othersuitable materials are those that oxidize, and the oxidized form isreadily reduced with hydrogen. In an embodiment, at least one compoundor species is added to the electrolyte to maintain an oxidized state ofthe anode. Exemplary additives are alkali and alkaline earth halidessuch as LiF and KX (X═F, Cl, Br, I). In an embodiment, the cell isoperated in a voltage range that maintains the anode in a suitableoxidized state to propagate the hydrino reaction. The voltage range mayfurther permit operation without significant anode corrosion. Theintermittent electrolysis waveform may maintain the suitable voltagerange. The range may be at least one of about 0.5 V to 2V, about 0.6 Vto 1.5 V, about 0.7 V to 1.2 V, about 0.75 V to 1.1 V, about 0.8 V to0.9 V, and about 0.8 V to 0.85 V. The waveform during each of charge anddischarge phases of the intermittent cycle may be at least one ofvoltage limited or voltage controlled, time limit controlled, andcurrent controlled. In an embodiment, oxygen ions formed at the cathodeby oxygen reduction carry the ion current of the cell. The oxygen ioncurrent is controlled to maintain a desired state of oxidation of theanode. The oxygen ion current may be increased by at least one ofincreasing the cell current and increasing the rate of oxygen reductionby means such as increasing at least one of the cathode and anode oxygenpressure. The oxygen flow may be increased by increasing the oxygenreduction rate at the cathode by using cathodic oxygen reactioncatalysts such as NiO, lithiated NiO, CoO, Pt, and rare earth oxideswherein the increased oxygen current supports formation of oxyhydroxideat the anode. In an embodiment, the CIHT cell temperature is adjusted tomaximize the hydrino reaction kinetics that favors a high temperaturewhile avoiding oxyhydroxide decomposition that favors lower temperature.In an embodiment, the temperature is in the range of at least one ofabout 25° C. to 1000° C., 300° C. to 800° C., and 400° C. to 500° C.

In an embodiment, the current density of at least one of charge anddischarge of an intermittent or continuous discharge cycle is very highto cause an increase in the kinetics of hydrinos formation. The peakcurrent density may be in the range of at least one 0.001 mA/cm² to100,000 A/cm², 0.1 mA/cm² to 10,000 A/cm², 1 mA/cm² to 1000 A/cm², 10mA/cm² to 100 A/cm², and 100 mA/cm² to 1 A/cm². The cell may beintermittently charged and discharged at high current with short timedurations for each phase of the cycle in order to maintain a tolerabledifference between the charge and discharge voltage range such that netpower is generated by the cell. The time interval is in at least onerange chosen from about 10⁻⁶ s to 10 s and 10⁻³ s to 1 s. The currentmay be AC, DC or an AC-DC mixture. In an embodiment, comprising amagnetohydrodynamic plasma to electric power converter, the current isDC such that a DC magnetic field is produced by the current. In anembodiment, at least one of the charge and discharge current comprisesan AC modulation. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hzto 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. Thepeak voltage of the modulation may be in at least one range chosen fromabout 0.001 V to 10 V, 0.01 V to 5V, 0.1 V to 3 V, 0.2 V to 2 V, 0.3 Vto 1.5 V, and 0.5 V to 1 V. In an embodiment, the current pulse isdelivered along a transmission line to achieve at least one of a highervoltage or current. In an exemplary case wherein the appliedhigh-current pulse is AC, the most rapid kinetics may be achieved whenthe current is changing at it maximum rate at about 0 A, correspondingto the maximum ability to draw charge from the sample. The electrodeseparation may be minimized to decrease the cell resistance to permit ahigh current density. The separation distance may be dynamicallycontrolled by monitoring the current density, cell resistance, voltageand other electrical parameters and using one or more of those values toadjust the separation. The electrode may be designed to concentrate thecurrent at specific regions of the surface such as at sharp edges orpoints. In an embodiment, the electrode comprises a cube or needle orother geometrical shape with sharp edges to concentrate the field andthe current density to achieved high current density such as about 500mA/cm² or greater.

In an embodiment, the anode comprises a material such as a metal such asat least one of a precious, transition, and inner transition metal thatforms at least one of a hydride and bonds to hydrogen. The material mayincrease the effective atomic hydrogen on the surface of the anode. Theincreased surface hydrogen may permit a decreased hydrogen sparge orpermeation rate to maintain at least one of a desired rate of thehydrino reaction and protection from anode corrosion. Exemplary metalsare Pt, Pd, Au, Ir, Ru, Co, Cu, Ni, V, and Nb and mixtures that may bepresent in any desired amount, alone or as a mixture or alloy. Thematerial such as a metal may serve as a hydrogen dissociator. Theincreased atomic hydrogen may serve to provide at least one of anincrease in the hydrino reaction rate and an enhancement of theeffectiveness of the hydrogen present to prevent corrosion. Exemplarydissociative metals are Pt, Pd, Ir, Ru, Co, Ni, V, and Nb. In anembodiment, a compound or material is added to at least one of the anodeand electrolyte that increases the cell voltage. The increase may be dueto a change in at least one of electrode overpotential, the hydrinoreaction rate, and the Fermi level of the anode. The dissociative metalmay increase the rate of flow of hydrogen across a hydrogen permeableanode. Exemplary anode metal additives are Pt and Au wherein theadditive may be to a predominantly Ni anode to form an alloy or mixture.Exemplary electrolyte additives are MgI₂, CaI₂, MgO, and ZrO₂. In anembodiment, the anode comprising an noble metal or a metal doped with anoble metal as a mixture or alloy such as PtNi or PtAuPd has a higheroperating voltage than the base metal such as Ni in the absence of thenoble metal since it has a lower overpotential and gives a higher yieldof hydrogen from electrolysis during the charging phase. The H₂ tomaintain a flat high voltage band may have due to electrolysis stored inthe reservoir that permeates out during discharge. In an embodiment, theH₂ supplied to the anode surface is only from electrolysis.

In an embodiment a compound may be added to the electrolyte such asLiOH—LiBr to increase the reaction rate at the cathode surface andstabilize the anode. Suitable additives are at least one of an alkalinehydroxide such as at least one of CsOH and NaOH, an alkaline earthhydroxide, an alkaline or alkaline earth halide, and oxide such as CoO,NiO, LiNiO₂, CoO, LiCoO₂, and a rare earth oxide such as ZrO, MgO, othercompounds that increase the basicity, CeO₂, La₂O₃, MoOOH, MoCl₄, CuCl₂,CoCl₂, oxyhydroxides such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH,NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, an Fecompound such as an oxide such as Fe₂O₃ or a halide such as FeBr₂, asulfate such as Li₂SO₄, a phosphate such as Li₃PO₄, a tungstate such asLi₂WO₄, a carbonate such as Li₂CO₃, NiO or Ni(OH)₂ that may form LiNiO₂at the anode, an iron compound such as Fe₂O₃ to form LiFeO₂ at theanode, MgO to form MgNiO_(x) at the anode, a compound with a largecation such as one with a large stable molecular cation or a stablemetal complex such as 1-butyl-3-methylimidazol-3-iumhexafluorophosphate, betaine bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, orN-Butyl-N-Methyl pyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide, and acompound comprising HS⁻ such as LiHS. In an embodiment, the additivecomprises a compound having a large cation such as the Cs⁺ ion of CsOHor one having a higher charge such as that of an alkaline earth compoundor the Bi³⁺ cation of a bismuth compound. The concentration is adjustedto avoid excessive corrosion. An exemplary low concentration is about <1mole % or <5 mole %. In an embodiment, an additive is added that may bereduced at the cathode, migrate to the anode and be oxidized at theanode. The compound thus causes a parasitic current in addition to thecurrent from the reactions given by Eqs. (61-63). The additive may havemultiple stable oxidation states. An exemplary suitable additive is aniron compound such as FeBr₂, FeBr₃, FeO, Fe₂O₃, Fe(OH)₂, and Fe(OH)₃,and other metals such as a transition metal substituting for Fe. Theadditive may cause a high current to increase the rate of the hydrinoreaction.

In an embodiment, the anode comprises a primary metal and an additivesuch as at least one of Ag, a rare earth oxide such as CeO₂ or La₂O₃,and a noble metal or a mixture or alloy of noble metals such as Pt, Ir,Re, Pd, or AuPdPt. One of Li₂CO₃, Li₂O, NiO, or Ni(OH)₂ may serve as anadditive to form LiNiO₂ in the anode. LiNiO₂ may alter conductivity,promote oxide-hydroxide interconversion during cell electrochemicaloperation, or Li⁺+electron reaction to facilitate the hydrino reaction.The additive may lower the over potential for at least one of H₂ or H₂Oevolution at the anode during charge and discharge, respectively. Inembodiments, cells comprising Pt anode additive and a CsOH electrolyteadditive are [NiPt(H2)/LiOH—LiBr—CsOH)/NiO],[CoPt(H2)/LiOH—LiBr—CsOH)/NiO], and [MoPt(H2)/LiOH—LiBr—CsOH)/NiO]. Inan embodiment, an additive to at least one of the anode such as a tapecast one and the electrolyte comprises a solid-oxide fuel cellelectrolyte, an oxide conductor, yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ) whichmay also comprise Sr, (such as the common 8% form Y8SZ), scandiastabilized zirconia (ScSZ) (such as the common 9 mol % Sc2O3-9ScSZ),gadolinium doped ceria (GDC) or gadolinia doped ceria (CGO), lanthanumgallate, bismuth copper vanadium oxide such as BiCuVO_(x)), MgO, ZrO₂,La₂O₃, CeO₂, perovskite materials such as La_(1-x)Sr_(x)Co_(y)O³⁻,proton conductors, doped barium cerates and zirconates, and SrCeO₃-typeproton conductors such as strontium cerium yttrium niobium oxide andH_(x)WO₃. Additionally, the additive may comprise a metal such as Al,Mo, transition, inner transition metal, or rare earth metal.

In an embodiment, at least one of the anode, cathode, or electrolytecomprises an additive that achieves the same function of increasing thehydrino catalyst reaction rate as a high current. The additive mayremove electrons formed during H catalysis. The additive may undergo anelectron exchange reaction. In an exemplary embodiment, the additivecomprises carbon that may be added to the anode or cathode, or example.Electrons react with carbon to form C_(x) ⁻ that intercalates Li⁺ fromthe electrolyte to maintain neutrality. Thus, carbon serves as a sink toremove electrons in a similar manner as a high current.

In an embodiment of the CIHT cell, the anode comprises an H₂ reservoirto provide H₂ by permeation or sparging, wherein the outside wall is incontact with the electrolyte and comprises the anode surface. The anodefurther comprises an additive comprising a compound or material that isadded inside of the reservoir. The additive may change the voltage atthe anode to facilitate the hydrino reaction at a higher rate and/ormaintain the voltage to essentially prevent anode corrosion. Theadditive may comprise a compound that may reversibly react with Hwherein the H may undergo transport across the wall of the reservoir.The transport may be into the reservoir during charge and out of thereservoir during discharge. An additive comprising a hydride or hydrogenstorage material inside of anode may serve as a hydrogen source duringdischarge that is regenerative by charging. A hydrogen dissociator suchas a noble metal such as Pt may increase the hydrogen dissociation andthe hydrogen flux across the hydrogen permeable anode. The additive maycomprise a hydrogen storage material such as LiH, titanium hydride,MgH₂, ZrH₂, VH, NbH, LaNi₆H_(x), LiH+LiNH₂, or Li₃N or mixture such as aeutectic mixture of alkali nitrides or other metal nitrides such asaluminum or magnesium to make a conductive liquid inside the anode. Theadditive that reacts with H transported across the H permeable anode maygive rise to an anode voltage contribution. The voltage may be due tothe dependency of the reaction of the additive with H on the transportof H across the anode wherein the external electrochemical reaction atthe anode surface produces or consumes the H. Additional suitableadditives are MoO₂, MoS₂, a metal such as a transition metal such as Co,and a noble metal such as Pd. Exemplary reactions of an additive thatcontributes to the voltage by the interaction of the internal additivewith the external are

$\begin{matrix}{{4{OH}_{({external})}^{-}} + {{Li}_{3}N_{({internal})}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiNH}_{2{({internal})}}} + {2{LiH}_{({internal})}} + {4e^{-}} + {2O_{2{({external})}}}} & (75) \\{{OH}_{({external})}^{-} + {{Li}_{({internal})}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiH}_{({internal})}} + e^{-} + {1\text{/}2O_{2{({external})}}}} & (76) \\{and} & \; \\{{6{OH}_{({external})}^{-}} + {{LaNi}_{5{({internal})}}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LaNi}_{5}H_{6{({internal})}}} + {6e^{-}} + {3O_{2{({external})}}}} & (77)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, NH₂ ⁻ catalyst and H are formed inside of the anodesuch that hydrinos are formed inside of the anode as well as outside.The catalyst in the latter case may be HOH. The formation of NH₂ ⁻catalyst and H inside of the anode may be due to H transport across thehydrogen permeable anode. The formation of H that undergoes transportmay be due to oxidation of OH⁻ or from H₂O electrolyzed from the energyreleased in the formation of hydrino. The H may be due to oxidation atthe anode and reduction at the cathode, and the ensuing formation ofhydrinos with a large energy release comprises another embodiment theCIHT cell that uses at least one of HOH and NH₂ ⁻ as the catalyst. Thereactants to form the NH₂ ⁻ catalyst may comprise Li—N—H system of thepresent disclosure.

In an embodiment of the CIHT cell such as one comprising an aqueouselectrolyte, the anode comprises base-etched NiAl. The anode maycomprise tape cast NiAl alloy. The base etched alloy may comprise R—Ni.Alternatively, the anode may comprise a metalized polymer that serves asthe H₂ permeable anode, such as for the aqueous cell. In an embodiment,the metalized polymer anode comprises at least one of Ni, Co, and Mo. Amolten salt electrolytic cell as well as an aqueous electrolytic cellmay comprise a metalized anode polymer having a high melting point suchas Teflon.

In an embodiment of the CIHT cell, the hydrino reaction rate isdependent on the application or development of a high current. The CIHTcell may be charged and then discharged at a high current to increasethe rate of the hydrino reaction. The cell may be charged and dischargedintermittently such that a gain in electrical energy is achieved due tothe contribution from the hydrino reaction. In an embodiment capable ofat least one of high charge and discharge currents, anickel-metal-hydride-battery-type (NiMH-type cell) CIHT cell comprises avessel, a positive plate containing nickel hydroxide that is at leastpartially charged to nickel oxyhydroxide as its active material, anegative plate comprising hydrogen-absorbing alloys such as NiFe, MgNi,and LaNi₅ that is charged to the corresponding hydride as the activematerial, a separator such as Celgard or other fine fibers such as apolyolefin that may be non-woven or woven, and an alkaline electrolyte.Suitable electrolytes are an aqueous hydroxide salt such as an alkalihydroxide such as KOH, NaOH, or LiOH. Another salt such as an alkalihalide such as LiBr may be added to improve the conductivity. In anembodiment, the electrolyte for high conductivity to carry high currentsuch as LiOH—LiBr is selected to limit any oxygen reduction reaction andlimit corrosion.

In an embodiment, the catalyst HOH is formed at the negative electrodein the presence of a source of H or H such that the catalysis of H toform hydrinos occurs. In an embodiment, the active anode material is asource of H and the active material of the cathode is a source of oxygenor a compound comprising O such as OH⁻. For a NiMH-type cell, a suitableactive anode material is nickel metal hydride, and a suitable activecathode material is nickel oxyhydroxide, NiO(OH). The reactionsoccurring in this NiMH type cell are:

Anode reaction (negative electrode):

$\begin{matrix}{{OH}^{-} + {{MH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + M + e^{-}} & (78)\end{matrix}$

Cathode reaction (positive electrode):

$\begin{matrix}{{{NiO}({OH})} + {H_{2}O} + {e^{-}{to}{{Ni}({OH})}_{2}} + {OH}^{-}} & (79)\end{matrix}$

The “metal” M in the negative electrode of a NiMH-type cell comprises atleast one compound that serves the role of reversibly forming a mixtureof metal hydride compounds. M may comprise an intermetallic compoundsuch as at least one of AB₅, where A is a rare earth mixture oflanthanum, cerium, neodymium, praseodymium and B is nickel, cobalt,manganese, and/or aluminum; and the higher-capacity negative electrodematerials based on AB₂ compounds, where A is titanium and/or vanadiumand B is zirconium or nickel, modified with chromium, cobalt, iron,and/or manganese. M may comprise other suitable hydrides such as thoseof the present disclosure.

In an embodiment, the hydrogen absorbing alloys combine metal (A) whosehydrides generate heat exothermically with metal (B) whose hydridesgenerate heat endothermically to produce a suitable binding energy sothat hydrogen can be absorbed and released at or near normal pressureand temperature levels. Depending on how the metals are combined, thealloys comprise the following types: AB such as TiFe, AB₂ such as ZnMn,AB₅ such as LaNi₅, and A₂B such as Mg₂Ni. Exemplary suitable anodealloys are metals of the lanthanum group wherein nickel serves as thehost metal and AB₂ type alloys in which titanium and nickel serve as thehost metal.

In an embodiment, in addition to the passive internal dischargereactions such as those of Eqs. (78-79), the discharge is driven with anexternal current or power source to force a high current through theCIHT cell to achieve a high hydrino reaction rate. The high dischargecurrent density may be in the range of at least one of 0.1 A/cm² to100,000 A/cm², 1 A/cm² to 10,000 A/cm², 1 A/cm² to 1000 A/cm², 10 A/cm²to 1000 A/cm², and 10 A/cm² to 100 A/cm². The hydrino reaction thenprovides a contribution to the discharge power such that power andenergy gain is achieved in the net of the output minus the inputrequired to recharge the cell and any external current source. In anembodiment, the external current source may comprise another CIHT cell.As given in Eq. (71), the reaction to form hydrinos produces oxygen inthe cell as a product. The hydrino gas may diffuse out of the cell, andthe oxygen may be converted back to water by the addition of hydrogengas that may be supplied at the anode as given in FIGS. 1 and 2.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte comprises a molten salt such as one ofthe present disclosure such as LiOH—LiBr, and the anode H source andcathode oxygen source are stable at the operating temperature exposed tothe molten salt electrolyte. An exemplary high-current driven cell is[MH/LiOH—LiBr/FeOOH] wherein MH is a metal hydride that is stable at theoperating temperature and conditions. The hydride may comprise ahydrogen storage material such as a metal such as titanium, vanadium,niobium, tantalum, zirconium and hafnium hydrides, rare earth hydrides,yttrium and scandium hydrides, transition element hydrides,intermetallic hydrides, and their alloys known in the art as given by W.M. Mueller, J. P. Blackledge, and G. G. Libowitz, Metal Hydrides,Academic Press, New York, (1968), Hydrogen in Intermetallic Compounds I,Edited by L. Schlapbach, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, and Hydrogen inIntermetallic Compounds II, Edited by L. Schlapbach, Springer-Verlag,Berlin, which are incorporated by reference herein. The metal hydridemay comprise a rare earth hydride such as one of lanthanum, gadolinium,ytterbium, cerium, and praseodymium, an inner transition metal hydridesuch as one of yttrium and neodymium, a transition metal hydride such asone of scandium and titanium, and an alloy hydride such as one ofzirconium-titanium (50%/50%). In an embodiment, H₂ gas is the source ofH at the anode. An exemplary cell is [Ni(H₂)/LiOH—LiBr/FeOOH].

The present disclosure is further directed to a power system thatgenerates thermal energy comprising: at least one vessel capable of apressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and belowatmospheric; at least one heater, reactants that constitute hydrinoreactants comprising: (a) a source of catalyst or a catalyst comprisingnascent H₂O; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c)reactants comprising a hydroxide compound and a halide compound to format least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source ofatomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or more reactants toinitiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen wherein the reaction occursupon at least one of mixing and heating the reactants. At least one ofthe hydroxide compound and the halide compound comprise at least one ofalkaline, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earthmetals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, Bi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Ni, Sb, Ge, Au,Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, and Zn.In an embodiment, the reactants further comprise a source of H₂O that isreacted with the products to regenerate the reactants.

The present disclosure is directed to an electrochemical power systemthat generates at least one of electricity and thermal energy comprisinga vessel closed to atmosphere, the vessel comprising at least onecathode; at least one anode, at least one bipolar plate, and reactantsthat constitute hydrino reactants during cell operation with separateelectron flow and ion mass transport, the reactants comprising at leasttwo components chosen from: (a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) at leastone source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising at least one of thegroup chosen from nH, OH, OH—, nascent H₂O, H₂S, or MNH₂, wherein n isan integer and M is alkali metal; and (c) at least one source of atomichydrogen or atomic hydrogen, one or more reactants to form at least oneof the source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen,and the atomic hydrogen; one or more reactants to initiate the catalysisof atomic hydrogen; and a support, wherein the combination of thecathode, anode, reactants, and bipolar plate maintains a chemicalpotential between each cathode and corresponding anode to permit thecatalysis of atomic hydrogen to propagate, and the system furthercomprising an electrolysis system. In an embodiment, the electrolysissystem of the electrochemical power system intermittently electrolyzesH2O to provide the source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen anddischarges the cell such that there is a gain in the net energy balanceof the cycle. The reactants may comprise at least one electrolyte chosenfrom: at least one molten hydroxide; at least one eutectic salt mixture;at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and at least one othercompound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and a salt; atleast one mixture of a molten hydroxide and halide salt; at least onemixture of an alkaline hydroxide and an alkaline halide; LiOH—LiBr,LiOH—LiX, NaOH—NaBr, NaOH—NaI, NaOH—NaX, and KOH—KX, wherein Xrepresents a halide), at least one matrix, and at least one additive.The electrochemical power system may further comprise a heater. The celltemperature of the electrochemical power system above the electrolytemelting point may be in at least one range chosen from about 0° C. to1500° C. higher than the melting point, from about 0° C. to 1000° C.higher than the melting point, from about 0° C. to 500° C. higher thanthe melting point, 0° C. to about 250° C. higher than the melting point,and from about 0° C. to 100° C. higher than the melting point. Inembodiments, the matrix of the electrochemical power system comprises atleast one of oxyanion compounds, aluminate, tungstate, zirconate,titanate, sulfate, phosphate, carbonate, nitrate, chromate, andmanganate, oxides, nitrides, borides, chalcogenides, silicides,phosphides, and carbides, metals, metal oxides, nonmetals, and nonmetaloxides; oxides of alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition,and earth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi,C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that form oxides or oxyanions; atleast one oxide such as one of an alkaline, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition, and rare earth metal, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te,Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that formoxides, and one oxyanion and further comprise at least one cation fromthe group of alkaline, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, andrare earth metal, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, and Pb cations; LiAlO₂, MgO,Li₂TiO₃, or SrTiO₃; an oxide of the anode materials and a compound ofthe electrolyte; at least one of a cation and an oxide of theelectrolyte; an oxide of the electrolyte MOH (M=alkali); an oxide of theelectrolyte comprising an element, metal, alloy, or mixture of the groupof Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co,and M′, wherein M′ represents an alkaline earth metal; MoO₂, TiO2, ZrO₂,SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, B₂O₃,NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂,CrO₃, MnO, Mn₃O₄, Mn2O3, MnO2, Mn2O7, HfO2, CoO, Co2O3, Co3O4, and MgO;an oxide of the cathode material and optionally an oxide of theelectrolyte; Li₂MoO₃ or Li₂MoO₄, Li₂TiO₃, Li₂ZrO₃, Li₂SiO₃, LiAlO₂,LiNiO₂, LiFeO₂, LiTaO₃, LiVO₃, Li₂B₄O₇, Li₂NbO₃, Li₂PO₄, Li₂SeO₃,Li₂SeO₄, Li₂TeO₃, Li₂TeO₄, Li₂WO₄, Li₂CrO₄, Li₂Cr₂O₇, Li₂MnO₄, Li₂HfO₃,LiCoO₂, and M′O, wherein M′ represents an alkaline earth metal, and MgO;an oxide of an element of the anode or an element of the same group, andLi₂MoO₄, MoO₂, Li₂WO₄, Li₂CrO₄, and Li₂Cr₂O₇ with a Mo anode, and theadditive comprises at least one of S, Li₂S, oxides, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂,SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃,P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄,Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, MgO, Li₂TiO₃, LiAlO₂, Li₂MoO₃ or Li₂MoO₄, Li₂ZrO₃,Li₂SiO₃, LiNiO₂, LiFeO₂, LiTaO₃, LiVO₃, Li₂B₄O₇, Li₂NbO₃, Li₂SeO₃,Li₂SeO₄, Li₂TeO₃, Li₂TeO₄, Li₂WO₄, Li₂CrO₄, Li₂Cr₂O₇, Li₂MnO₃, orLiCoO₂, MnO, and CeO₂. At least one of the following reactions may occurduring the operation of the electrochemical power system: (a) at leastone of H and H₂ is formed at the discharge anode from electrolysis ofH₂O; (b) at least one of O and O₂ is formed at the discharge cathodefrom electrolysis of H₂O; (c) the hydrogen catalyst is formed by areaction of the reaction mixture; (d) hydrinos are formed duringdischarge to produce at least one of electrical power and thermal power;(e) OH— is oxidized and reacts with H to form nascent H₂O that serves asa hydrino catalyst; (f) OH— is oxidized to oxygen ions and H; (g) atleast one of oxygen ions, oxygen, and H2O are reduced at the dischargecathode; (h) H and nascent H2O catalyst react to form hydrinos; and (i)hydrinos are formed during discharge to produce at least one ofelectrical power and thermal power. In an embodiment of theelectrochemical power system the at least one reaction of the oxidationof OH— and the reduction of at least one of oxygen ions, oxygen, and H2Ooccur during cell discharge to produce an energy that exceeds the energyduring the electrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. Thedischarge current over time may exceed the current over time during theelectrolysis phase of the intermittent electrolysis. In an embodiment,the anode half-cell reaction may be

OH⁻ + 2HtoH₂O + e⁻ + H(1/4)

wherein the reaction of a first H with OH— to form H₂O catalyst and e−is concerted with the H₂O catalysis of a second H to hydrino. Inembodiments, the discharge anode half-cell reaction has a voltage of atleast one of about 1.2 volts thermodynamically corrected for theoperating temperature relative to the standard hydrogen electrode, and avoltage in at least one of the ranges of about 1.5V to 0.75V, 1.3V to0.9V, and 1.25V to 1.1V relative to a standard hydrogen electrode and25° C., and the cathode half-cell reactions has a voltage of at leastone of about 0 V thermodynamically corrected for the operatingtemperature, and a voltage in at least one of the ranges of about −0.5Vto +0.5V, −0.2V to +0.2V, and −0.1V to +0.1V relative to the standardhydrogen electrode and 25° C.

In an embodiment of the electrochemical power system of the presentdisclosure, the cathode comprises NiO, the anode comprises at least oneof Ni, Mo, HAYNES® 242® alloy, and carbon, and the bimetallic junctioncomprises at least one of Hastelloy, Ni, Mo, and H HAYNES® 242® alloythat is a different metal than that of the anode. The electrochemicalpower system may comprise at least one stack of cells wherein thebipolar plate comprises a bimetallic junction separating the anode andcathode. In an embodiment, the cell is supplied with H2O, wherein theH2O vapor pressure is in at least one range chosen from about 0.001 Torrto 100 atm, about 0.001 Torr to 0.1 Torr, about 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr,about 1 Torr to 10 Torr, about 10 Torr to 100 Ton⁻, about 100 Torr to1000 Torr, and about 1000 Torr to 100 atm, and the balance of pressureto achieve at least atmospheric pressure is provided by a supplied inertgas comprising at least one of a noble gas and N2. In an embodiment, theelectrochemical power system may comprise a water vapor generator tosupply H2O to the system. In an embodiment, the cell is intermittentlyswitched between charge and discharge phases, wherein (i) the chargingphase comprises at least the electrolysis of water at electrodes ofopposite voltage polarity, and (ii) the discharge phase comprises atleast the formation of H2O catalyst at one or both of the electrodes;wherein (i) the role of each electrode of each cell as the cathode oranode reverses in switching back and forth between the charge anddischarge phases, and (ii) the current polarity reverses in switchingback and forth between the charge and discharge phases, and wherein thecharging comprises at least one of the application of an applied currentand voltage. In embodiments, at least one of the applied current andvoltage has a waveform comprising a duty cycle in the range of about0.001% to about 95%; a peak voltage per cell within the range of about0.1 V to 10 V; a peak power density of about 0.001 W/cm² to 1000 W/cm²,and an average power within the range of about 0.0001 W/cm² to 100 W/cm²wherein the applied current and voltage further comprises at least oneof direct voltage, direct current, and at least one of alternatingcurrent and voltage waveforms, wherein the waveform comprisesfrequencies within the range of about 1 Hz to about 1000 Hz. Thewaveform of the intermittent cycle may comprise at least one of constantcurrent, power, voltage, and resistance, and variable current, power,voltage, and resistance for at least one of the electrolysis anddischarging phases of the intermittent cycle. In embodiments, theparameters for at least one phase of the cycle comprises: the frequencyof the intermittent phase is in at least one range chosen from about0.001 Hz to 10 MHz, about 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz, and about 0.01 Hz to 10kHz; the voltage per cell is in at least one range chosen from about 0.1V to 100 V, about 0.3 V to 5 V, about 0.5 V to 2 V, and about 0.5 V to1.5 V; the current per electrode area active to form hydrinos is in atleast one range chosen from about 1 microamp cm⁻² to 10 A cm⁻², about0.1 milliamp cm⁻² to 5 A cm⁻², and about 1 milliamp cm⁻² to 1 A cm⁻²;the power per electrode area active to form hydrinos is in at least onerange chosen from about 1 microW cm⁻² to 10 W cm⁻², about 0.1 milliWcm⁻² to 5 W cm⁻², and about 1 milliW cm⁻² to 1 W cm⁻²; the constantcurrent per electrode area active to form hydrinos is in the range ofabout 1 microamp cm⁻² to 1 A cm⁻²; the constant power per electrode areaactive to form hydrinos is in the range of about 1 milliW cm⁻² to 1 Wcm⁻²; the time interval is in at least one range chosen from about 10⁻⁴s to 10,000 s, 10⁻³ s to 1000 s, and 10⁻² s to 100 s, and 10⁻¹ s to 10s; the resistance per cell is in at least one range chosen from about 1milliohm to 100 Mohm, about 1 ohm to 1 Mohm, and 10 ohm to 1 kohm;conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area active to formhydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 10⁻⁵ to 1000 ohm⁻¹cm⁻², 10⁻⁴ to 100 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻³ to 10 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and 10⁻² to 1 ohm⁻¹cm⁻², and at least one of the discharge current, voltage, power, or timeinterval is larger than that of the electrolysis phase to give rise toat least one of power or energy gain over the cycle. The voltage duringdischarge may be maintained above that which prevents the anode fromexcessively corroding.

In an embodiment of the electrochemical power system, thecatalyst-forming reaction is given by

O₂ + 5H⁺ + 5e⁻to2H₂O + H(1/p);

the counter half-cell reaction is given by

H₂to2H⁺ + 2e⁻;

and

the overall reaction is given by

3/2H₂ + 1/2O₂toH₂O + H(1/p).

At least one of the following products may be formed from hydrogenduring the operation of the electrochemical power system: (a) a hydrogenproduct with a Raman peak at integer multiple of 0.23 to 0.25 cm⁻¹ plusa matrix shift in the range of 0 cm⁻¹ to 2000 cm⁻¹; (b) a hydrogenproduct with a infrared peak at integer multiple of 0.23 cm⁻¹ to 0.25cm⁻¹ plus a matrix shift in the range of 0 cm⁻¹ to 2000 cm⁻¹; (c) ahydrogen product with a X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at anenergy in the range of 475 eV to 525 eV or 257 eV, 509 eV, 506 eV, 305eV, 490 eV, 400 eV, or 468 eV, plus a matrix shift in the range of 0 eVto 10 eV; (d) a hydrogen product that causes an upfield MAS NMR matrixshift; (e) a hydrogen product that has an upfield MAS NMR or liquid NMRshift of greater than −5 ppm relative to TMS; (f) a hydrogen productwith at least two electron-beam emission spectral peaks in the range of200 nm to 300 nm having a spacing at an integer multiple of 0.23 cm⁻¹ to0.3 cm⁻¹ plus a matrix shift in the range of 0 cm⁻¹ to 5000 cm⁻¹; and(g) a hydrogen product with at least two UV fluorescence emissionspectral peaks in the range of 200 nm to 300 nm having a spacing at aninteger multiple of 0.23 cm⁻¹ to 0.3 cm⁻¹ plus a matrix shift in therange of 0 cm⁻¹ to 5000 cm⁻¹.

The present disclosure is further directed to an electrochemical powersystem comprising a hydrogen anode comprising a hydrogen permeableelectrode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide; and atleast one of an O₂ and a H₂O cathode. In embodiments, the celltemperature that maintains at least one of a molten state of theelectrolyte and the membrane in a hydrogen permeable state is in atleast one range chosen from about 25° C. to 2000° C., about 100° C. to1000° C., about 200° C. to 750° C., and about 250° C. to 500° C., thecell temperature above the electrolyte melting point in at least onerange of about 0° C. to 1500° C. higher than the melting point, 0° C. to1000° C. higher than the melting point, 0° C. to 500° C. higher than themelting point, 0° C. to 250° C. higher than the melting point, and 0° C.to 100° C. higher than the melting point; the membrane thickness is inat least one range chosen from about 0.0001 cm to 0.25 cm, 0.001 cm to0.1 cm, and 0.005 cm to 0.05 cm; the hydrogen pressure is maintained inat least one range chosen from about 1 Torr to 500 atm, 10 Torr to 100atm, and 100 Torr to 5 atm; the hydrogen permeation rate is in at leastone range chosen from about 1×10⁻¹³ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁴ mole s⁻¹cm⁻², 1×10−12 mole s⁻¹ cm⁻²to 1×10−5 mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10−11 mole s⁻¹cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁶ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹⁰ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁷ mole s⁻¹cm⁻², and 1×10⁻⁹ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁸ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻². In anembodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises a hydrogen anodecomprising a hydrogen-sparging electrode; a molten salt electrolytecomprising a hydroxide, and at least one of an O₂ and a H₂O cathode. Inembodiments, the cell temperature that maintains a molten state of theelectrolyte is in at least one range chosen from about 0° C. to 1500° C.higher than the electrolyte melting point, 0° C. to 1000° C. higher thanthe electrolyte melting point, 0° C. to 500° C. higher than theelectrolyte melting point, 0° C. to 250° C. higher than the electrolytemelting point, and 0° C. to 100° C. higher than the electrolyte meltingpoint; the hydrogen flow rate per geometric area of the 112 bubbling orsparging electrode is in at least one range chosen from about 1×10⁻¹³mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁴ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹² mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁵mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹¹ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁶ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², 1×10⁻¹⁰mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to 1×10⁻⁷ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻², and 1×10⁻⁹ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻² to1×10⁻⁸ mole s⁻¹ cm⁻²; the rate of reaction at the counter electrodematches or exceeds that at the electrode at which hydrogen reacts; thereduction rate of at least one of H₂O and O₂ is sufficient to maintainthe reaction rate of H or Hz, and the counter electrode has a surfacearea and a material sufficient to support the sufficient rate.

The present disclosure is further directed to a power system thatgenerates thermal energy comprising: at least one vessel capable of apressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and belowatmospheric; at least one heater, reactants that constitute hydrinoreactants comprising: (a) a source of catalyst or a catalyst comprisingnascent H2O; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c)reactants to form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst,the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or morereactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen wherein thereaction occurs upon at least one of mixing and heating the reactants.In embodiments, the reaction of the power system to form at least one ofthe source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, andthe atomic hydrogen comprise at least one reaction chosen from adehydration reaction; a combustion reaction; a reaction of a Lewis acidor base and a Bronsted-Lowry acid or base; an oxide-base reaction; anacid anhydride-base reaction; an acid-base reaction; a base-active metalreaction; an oxidation-reduction reaction; a decomposition reaction; anexchange reaction, and an exchange reaction of a halide, 0, S, Se, Te,NH3, with compound having at least one OH; a hydrogen reduction reactionof a compound comprising O, and the source of H is at least one ofnascent H formed when the reactants undergo reaction and hydrogen from ahydride or gas source and a dissociator.

VI. Chemical Reactor

The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for producingincreased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the presentdisclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds.Further products of the catalysis are power and optionally plasma andlight depending on the cell type. Such a reactor is hereinafter referredto as a “hydrogen reactor” or “hydrogen cell.” The hydrogen reactorcomprises a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos maytake the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell such as a gasdischarge cell, a plasma torch cell, or microwave power cell, and anelectrochemical cell. Exemplary embodiments of the cell for makinghydrinos may take the form of a liquid-fuel cell, a solid-fuel cell, aheterogeneous-fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT cell. Each of thesecells comprises: (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least onecatalyst chosen from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquidcatalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof for making hydrinos;and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for makinghydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure,the term “hydrogen,” unless specified otherwise, includes not onlyproteum (¹H), but also deuterium (²H) and tritium (³H). Exemplarychemical reaction mixtures and reactors may comprise SF-CIHT, CIHT, orthermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplaryembodiments are given in this Chemical Reactor section. Examples ofreaction mixtures having H2O as catalyst formed during the reaction ofthe mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts such asthose given in TABLES 1 and 3 may serve to form increased binding energyhydrogen species and compounds. An exemplary M-H type catalyst of TABLE3A is NaH. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from theseexemplary cases in the parameters such as the reactants, reactant wt%'s, H₂ pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants,conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure.Hydrinos and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactorsof the present disclosure by predicted continuum radiation bands of aninteger times 13.6 eV, otherwise unexplainable extraordinarily high Hkinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines,inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields,and anomalously plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills PriorPublications. The data such as that regarding the CIHT cell and solidfuels has been validated independently, off site by other researchers.The formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure was alsoconfirmed by electrical energies that were continuously output overlong-duration, that were multiples of the electrical input that in mostcases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10 with noalternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H₂(1/4) wasidentified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H NMR thatshowed a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of about −4.4 ppm,ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS that showed H₂(1/4) complexed to a getter matrixas m/e=M+n2 peaks wherein M is the mass of a parent ion and n is aninteger, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy andphotoluminescence emission spectroscopy that showed the predictedrotational and vibration spectrum of H₂(1/4) having 16 or quantum numberp=4 squared times the energies of H₂, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy thatshowed the rotational energy of H₂(1/4) of 1950 cm⁻¹, being 16 orquantum number p=4 squared times the rotational energy of H₂, XPS thatshowed the predicted total binding energy of H₂(1/4) of 500 eV, and aToF-SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m/e=1 peak thatcorresponded to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV that matched thepredicted energy release for H to H(1/4) with the energy transferred toa third body H as reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills XYu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst Induced HydrinoTransition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell”, International Journal of EnergyResearch, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J.Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT)Electrochemical Cell” (2014) which are herein incorporated by referencein their entirety.

Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differentialscanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by cells of thepresent disclosure such as ones comprising a solid fuel to generatethermal power was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy fromhydrino-forming solid fuels that exceed the maximum theoretical energyby a factor of 60 times. The MAS H NMR showed a predicted H₂(1/4)upfield matrix shift of about −4.4 ppm. A Raman peak starting at 1950cm^(−I) matched the free space rotational energy of H₂(1/4) (0.2414 eV).These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills,J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, “Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”, (2014)which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In an embodiment, a solid fuel reaction forms H₂O and H as products orintermediate reaction products. The H₂O may serve as a catalyst to formhydrinos. The reactants comprise at least one oxidant and one reductant,and the reaction comprises at least one oxidation-reduction reaction.The reductant may comprise a metal such as an alkali metal. The reactionmixture may further comprise a source of hydrogen, and a source of H₂O,and may optionally comprise a support such as carbon, carbide, boride,nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The support may comprisea metal powder. In an embodiment, a hydrogen support comprises Mo or aMo alloy such as those of the present disclosure such as MoPt, MoNi,MoCu, and MoCo. In an embodiment, oxidation of the support is avoided bymethods such as selecting the other components of the reaction mixturethat do not oxidize the support, selecting a non-oxidizing reactiontemperature and conditions, and maintaining a reducing atmosphere suchas a H₂ atmosphere as known by one skilled in the art. The source of Hmay be selected from the group of alkali, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition, rare earth hydrides, and hydrides of the presentdisclosure. The source of hydrogen may be hydrogen gas that may furthercomprise a dissociator such as those of the present disclosure such as anoble metal on a support such as carbon or alumina and others of thepresent disclosure. The source of water may comprise a compound thatdehydrates such as a hydroxide or a hydroxide complex such as those ofAl, Zn, Sn, Cr, Sb, and Pb. The source of water may comprise a source ofhydrogen and a source of oxygen. The oxygen source may comprise acompound comprising oxygen. Exemplary compounds or molecules are O₂,alkali or alkali earth oxide, peroxide, or superoxide, TeO₂, SeO₂, PO₂,P₂O₅, SO₂, SO₃, M₂SO₄, MHSO₄, CO₂, M₂S₂O₈, MMnO₄, M₂Mn₂O₄, M_(x)H_(y)PO₄(x, y=integer), POBr₂, MClO₄, MNO₃, NO, N₂O, NO₂, N₂O₃, Cl₂O₇, and O₂(M=alkali; and alkali earth or other cation may substitute for M). Otherexemplary reactants comprise reagents selected from the group of Li,LiH, LiNO₃, LiNO, LiNO₂, Li₃N, Li₂NH, LiNH₂, LiX, NH3, LiBH₄, LiAlH₄,Li₃AlH₆, LiOH, Li₂S, LiHS, LiFeSi, Li₂CO₃, LiHCO₃, Li₂SO₄, LiHSO₄,Li₃PO₄, Li₂HPO₄, LiH₂PO₄, Li₂MoO₄, LiNbO₃, Li₂B₄O₇ (lithiumtetraborate), LiBO₂, Li₂WO₄, LiAlCl₄, LiGaCl₄, Li₂CrO₄, Li₂Cr₂O₇,Li₂TiO₃, LiZrO₃, LiAlO₂, LiCoO₂, LiGaO₂, Li₂GeO₃, LiMn₂O₄, Li₄SiO₄,Li₂SiO₃, LiTaO₃, LiCuCl₄, LiPdCl₄, LiVO₃, LiIO₃, LiBrO₃, LiXO₃ (X═F, Br,Cl, I), LiFeO₂, LiIO₄, LiBrO₄, LiIO₄, LiXO₄ (X═F, Br, Cl, I), LiScO_(n),LiTiO_(n), LiVO_(n), LiCrO_(n), LiCr₂O_(n), LiMn₂O_(n), LiFeO_(n),LiCoO_(n), LiNiO_(n), LiNi₂O_(n), LiCuO_(n), and LiZnO_(n), where n=1,2, 3, or 4, an oxyanion, an oxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidant, amolecular oxidant such as V₂O₃, I₂O₅, MnO₂, Re₂O₇, CrO₃, RuO₂, AgO, PdO,PdO₂, PtO, PtO₂, and NH₄X wherein X is a nitrate or other suitable aniongiven in the CRC, and a reductant. Another alkali metal or other cationmay substitute for Li. Additional sources of oxygen may be selected fromthe group of MCoO₂, MGaO₂, M₂GeO₃, MMn₂O₄, M₄SiO₄, M₂SiO₃, MTaO₃, MVO₃,MIO₃, MFeO₂, MIO₄, MClO₄, MScO_(n), MTiO_(n), MVO_(n), MCrO_(n),MCr₂O_(n), MMn₂O_(n), MFeO_(n), MCoO_(n), MNiO_(n), MNi₂O_(n), MCuO_(n),and MZnO_(n), where M is alkali and n=1, 2, 3, or 4, an oxyanion, anoxyanion of a strong acid, an oxidant, a molecular oxidant such as V₂O₃,I₂O₅, MnO₂, Re₂O₇, CrO₃, RuO₂, AgO, PdO, PdO₂, PtO, PtO₂, I₂O₄, I₂O₅,I₂O₉, SO₂, SO₃, CO₂, N₂O, NO, NO₂, N₂O₃, N₂O₄, N₂O₅, Cl₂O, ClO₂, Cl₂O₃,Cl₂O₆, Cl₂O₇, PO₂, P₂O₃, and P₂O₅. The reactants may be in any desiredratio that forms hydrinos. An exemplary reaction mixture is 0.33 g ofLiH, 1.7 g of LiNO₃ and the mixture of 1 g of MgH₂ and 4 g of activatedC powder. Another exemplary reaction mixture is that of gun powder suchas KNO₃ (75 wt %), softwood charcoal (that may comprise about theformulation C₇H₄O) (15 wt %), and S (10 wt %); KNO₃ (70.5 wt %) andsoftwood charcoal (29.5 wt %) or these ratios within the range of about±1-30 wt %. The source of hydrogen may be charcoal comprising about theformulation C₇H₄O.

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises reactants that formnitrogen, carbon dioxide, and H₂O wherein the latter serves as thehydrino catalyst for H also formed in the reaction. In an embodiment,the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of H₂Othat may comprise a nitrate, sulfate, perchlorate, a peroxide such ashydrogen peroxide, peroxy compound such as triacetone-triperoxide (TATP)or diacteone-diperoxide (DADP) that may also serve as a source of Hespecially with the addition of O₂ or another oxygen source such as anitro compound such as nitrocellulose (APNC), oxygen or other compoundcomprising oxygen or oxyanion compound. The reaction mixture maycomprise a source of a compound or a compound, or a source of afunctional group or a functional group comprising at least two ofhydrogen, carbon, hydrocarbon, and oxygen bound to nitrogen. Thereactants may comprise a nitrate, nitrite, nitro group, and nitramine.The nitrate may comprise a metal such as alkali nitrate, may compriseammonium nitrate, or other nitrates known to those skilled in the artsuch as alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, or rareearth metal, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb nitrates. The nitro group maycomprise a functional group of an organic compound such as nitromethane,nitroglycerin, trinitrotoluene or a similar compound known to thoseskilled in the art. An exemplary reaction mixture is NH₄NO₃ and a carbonsource such as a long chain hydrocarbon (C_(n)H_(2n+2)) such as heatingoil, diesel fuel, kerosene that may comprise oxygen such as molasses orsugar or nitro such as nitromethane or a carbon source such as coaldust. The H source may also comprise the NH₄, the hydrocarbon such asfuel oil, or the sugar wherein the H bound to carbon provides acontrolled release of H. The H release may be by a free radicalreaction. The C may react with O to release H and form carbon-oxygencompounds such as CO, CO₂, and formate. In an embodiment, a singlecompound may comprise the functionalities to form nitrogen, carbondioxide, and H₂O. A nitramine that further comprises a hydrocarbonfunctionality is cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine, commonly referred to asCyclonite or by the code designation RDX. Other exemplary compounds thatmay serve as at least one of the source of H and the source of H₂Ocatalyst such as a source of at least one of a source of O and a sourceof H are at least one selected from the group of ammonium nitrate (AN),black powder (75% KNO₃+15% charcoal+10% S), ammonium nitrate/fuel oil(ANFO) (94.3% AN+5.7% fuel oil), erythritol tetranitrate,trinitrotoluene (TNT), amatol (80% TNT+20% AN), tetrytol (70% tetryl+30%TNT), tetryl (2,4,6-trinitrophenylmethylnitramine (C₇H₅N₅O₈)), C-4 (91%RDX), C-3 (RDX based), composition B (63% RDX+36% TNT), nitroglycerin,RDX (cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine), Semtex (94.3% PETN+5.7% RDX), PETN(pentaerythritol tetranitrate), HMX or octogen(octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine), HNIW (CL-20)(2,4,6,8,10,12-hexanitro-2,4,6,8,10,12-hexaazaisowurtzitane), DDF,(4,4′-dinitro-3,3′-diazenofuroxan), heptanitrocubane, octanitrocubane,2,4,6-tris(trinitromethyl)-1,3,5-triazine, TATNB (1,3,5-trinitrobenzene,3,5-triazido-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene), trinitroanaline, TNP(2,4,6-trinitrophenol or picric acid), dunnite (ammonium picrate),methyl picrate, ethyl picrate, picrate chloride(2-chloro-1,3,5-trinitrobenzene), trinitocresol, lead styphnate (lead2,4,6-trinitroresorcinate, C₆HN₃O₈Pb), TATB (triaminotrinitrobenzene),methyl nitrate, nitroglycol, mannitol hexanitrate, ethylenedinitramine,nitroguanidine, tetranitroglycoluril, nitrocellulos, urea nitrate, andhexamethylene triperoxide diamine (HMTD). The ratio of hydrogen, carbon,oxygen, and nitrogen may be in any desired ratio. In an embodiment of areaction mixture of ammonium nitrate (AN) and fuel oil (FO) known asammonium nitrate/fuel oil (ANFO), a suitable stoichiometry to give abouta balanced reaction is about 94.3 wt % AN and 5.7 wt % FO, but the FOmay be in excess. An exemplary balanced reaction of AN and nitromethaneis

3NH₄NO₃+2CH₃NO₂ to 4N₂+2CO₂+9H₂O   (80)

wherein some of the H is also converted to lower energy hydrogen speciessuch as H₂(1/p) and H⁻(1/p) such as p=4. In an embodiment, the molarratios of hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen are similar such as in RDXhaving the formula C₃H₆N₆O₆.

In an embodiment, the energetics is increased by using an additionsource of atomic hydrogen such as H₂ gas or a hydride such as alkali,alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metalhydrides and a dissociator such as Ni, Nb, or a noble metal on a supportsuch as carbon, carbide, boride, or nitride or silica or alumina. Thereaction mixture may produce a compression or shock wave during reactionto form H₂O catalyst and atomic H to increase the kinetics to formhydrinos. The reaction mixture may comprise at least one reactant toincrease the heat during the reaction to form H and H₂O catalyst. Thereaction mixture may comprise a source of oxygen such as air that may bedispersed between granules or prills of the solid fuel. For example ANprills may comprise about 20% air. The reaction mixture may furthercomprise a sensitizer such as air-filled glass beads. In an exemplaryembodiment, a powdered metal such as Al is added to increase the heatand kinetics of reaction. For example, Al metal powder may be added toANFO. Other reaction mixtures comprise pyrotechnic materials that alsohave a source of H and a source of catalyst such as H₂O. In anembodiment, the formation of hydrinos has a high activation energy thatcan be provided by an energetic reaction such as that of energetic orpyrotechnic materials wherein the formation of hydrinos contributes tothe self-heating of the reaction mixture. Alternatively, the activationenergy can be provided by an electrochemical reaction such as that ofthe CIHT cell that has a high equivalent temperature corresponding to11,600 K/eV.

Another exemplary reaction mixture is H₂ gas that may be in the pressurerange of about 0.01 atm to 100 atm, a nitrate such as an alkali nitratesuch as KNO₃, and hydrogen dissociator such as Pt/C, Pd/C, Pt/Al₂O₃, orPd/Al₂O₃. The mixture may further comprise carbon such as graphite orGrade GTA Grafoil (Union Carbide). The reaction ratios may be anydesired such as about 1 to 10% Pt or Pd on carbon at about 0.1 to 10 wt% of the mixture mixed with the nitrate at about 50 wt %, and thebalance carbon; though the ratios could be altered by a factor of about5 to 10 in exemplary embodiments. In the case that carbon is used as asupport, the temperature is maintained below that which results in a Creaction to form a compound such as a carbonate such as an alkalicarbonate. In an embodiment, the temperature is maintained in a rangesuch as about 50° C.-300° C. or about 100° C.-250° C. such that NH₃ isformed over N₂.

The reactants and regeneration reaction and systems may comprise thoseof the present disclosure or in my prior US Patent Applications such asHydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008;Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul.29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828,PCT filed Mar. 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System,PCT/US11/28889, filed PCT Mar. 17, 2011; H₂O-Based ElectrochemicalHydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012, andCIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013 (“Mills PriorApplications”) herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

In an embodiment, the reaction may comprise a nitrogen oxide such asN₂O, NO₂, or NO rather than a nitrate. Alternatively the gas is alsoadded to the reaction mixture. NO, NO₂, and N₂O and alkali nitrates canbe generated by known industrial methods such as by the Haber processfollowed by the Ostwald process. In one embodiment, the exemplarysequence of steps is:

$\begin{matrix}{{N_{2}\overset{H_{2}\begin{matrix}{Haber} \\{process}\end{matrix}}{\rightarrow}{NH}_{3}\overset{O_{2}\begin{matrix}{Ostwald} \\{process}\end{matrix}}{\rightarrow}{NO}},{N_{2}O},{{NO}_{2}.}} & (81)\end{matrix}$

Specifically, the Haber process may be used to produce NH₃ from N₂ andH₂ at elevated temperature and pressure using a catalyst such as α-ironcontaining some oxide. The Ostwald process may be used to oxidize theammonia to NO, NO₂, and N₂O at a catalyst such as a hot platinum orplatinum-rhodium catalyst. In an embodiment, the products are at leastone of ammonia and an alkali compound. NO₂ may be formed from NH₃ byoxidation. NO₂ may be dissolved in water to form nitric acid that isreacted with the alkali compound such as M₂O, MOH, M₂CO₃, or MHCO₃ toform M nitrate wherein M is alkali.

In an embodiment, at least one reaction of a source of oxygen such asMNO₃ (M=alkali) to form H₂O catalyst, (ii) the formation of atomic Hfrom a source such as H₂, and (iii) the reaction to form hydrinos occursby or an on a conventional catalyst such as a noble metal such as Ptthat may be heated. The heated catalyst may comprise a hot filament. Thefilament may comprise a hot Pt filament. The source of oxygen such asMNO₃ may be at least partially gaseous. The gaseous state and its vaporpressure may be controlled by heating the MNO₃ such as KNO₃. The sourceof oxygen such as MNO₃ may be in an open boat that is heated to releasegaseous MNO₃. The heating may be with a heater such as the hot filament.In an exemplary embodiment, MNO₃ is placed in a quartz boat and a Ptfilament is wrapped around the boat to serve as the heater. The vaporpressure of the MNO₃ may be maintained in the pressure range of about0.1 Torr to 1000 Torr or about 1 Torr to 100 Torr. The hydrogen sourcemay be gaseous hydrogen that is maintained in the pressure range ofabout 1 Torr to 100 atm, about 10 Torr to 10 atm, or about 100 Torr to 1atm. The filament also serves to dissociate hydrogen gas that may besupplied to the cell through a gas line. The cell may also comprise avacuum line. The cell reactions give rise to H₂O catalyst and atomic Hthat react to form hydrinos. The reaction may be maintained in a vesselcapable of maintaining at least one of a vacuum, ambient pressure, or apressure greater than atmospheric. The products such as NH₃ and MOH maybe removed from the cell and regenerated. In an exemplary embodiment,MNO₃ reacts with the hydrogen source to form H₂O catalyst and NH₃ thatis regenerated in a separate reaction vessel or as a separate step byoxidation. In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen such as H₂ gas isgenerated from water by at least one of electrolysis or thermally.Exemplary thermal methods are the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV)oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodinecycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle and others known tothose skilled in the art. Exemplary cell reactions to form H₂O catalystthat reacts further with H to form hydrinos are

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{KNO}_{3} + {{9/2}H_{2}}}\rightarrow{K + {NH}_{3} + {3H_{2}{O.}}} \right. & (82) \\\left. {{KNO}_{3} + {5H_{2}}}\rightarrow{{KH} + {NH}_{3} + {3H_{2}{O.}}} \right. & (83) \\\left. {{KNO}_{3} + {4H_{2}}}\rightarrow{{KOH} + {NH}_{3} + {2H_{2}{O.}}} \right. & (84) \\\left. {{KNO}_{3} + C + {2H_{2}}}\rightarrow{{KOH} + {NH}_{3} + {{CO}_{2}.}} \right. & (85) \\\left. {{2{KNO}_{3}} + C + {3H_{2}}}\rightarrow{{K_{2}{CO}_{3}} + {1/2N_{2}} + {3H_{2}{O.}}} \right. & (86)\end{matrix}$

An exemplary regeneration reaction to form nitrogen oxides is given byEq. (81). Products such a K, KH, KOH, and K₂CO₃ may be reacted withnitric acid formed by addition of nitrogen oxide to water to form KNO₂or KNO₃. Additional suitable exemplary reactions to form at least one ofthe reacts H₂O catalyst and H₂ are given in TABLES 5, 6, and 7.

TABLE 5 Thermally reversible reaction cycles regarding H₂O catalyst andH₂. [L. C. Brown, G. E. Besenbruch, K. R. Schultz, A. C. Marshall, S. K.Showalter, P. S. Pickard and J. F. Funk, Nuclear Production of HydrogenUsing Thermochemical Water-Splitting Cycles, a preprint of a paper to bepresented at the International Congress on Advanced Nuclear Powerpreprint of a paper to be presented at the International Congress onAdvanced Nuclear Power Plants (ICAPP) in Hollywood, Florida, Jun. 19-13,2002, and published in the Proceedings.] Cycle Name T/E* T (° C.)Reaction 1 Westinghouse T 850 2H₂SO₄(g) → 2SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) + O₂(g) E 77SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(a) →→ H₂SO₄(a) + H₂(g) 2 Ispra Mark 13 T 850 2H₂SO₄(g) →2SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) + O₂(g) E 77 2HBr(a) → Br₂(a) + H₂(g) T 77 Br₂(1) +SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l) → 2HBr(g) + H₂SO₄(a) 3 UT-3 Univ. of Tokyo T 6002Br₂(g) + 2CaO → 2CaBr₂ + O₂(g) T 600 3FeBr₂ + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 6HBr +H₂(g) T 750 CaBr₂ + H₂O → CaO + 2HBr T 300 Fe₃O4 + 8HBr → Br₂ + 3FeBr₂ +4H₂O 4 Sulfur-Iodine T 850 2H₂SO₄(g) → 2SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) + O₂(g) T 4502HI → I₂(g) + H₂(g) T 120 I₂ + SO₂(a) + 2H₂O → 2HI(a) + H₂SO₄(a) 5Julich Center EOS T 800 2Fe₃O₄ + 6FeSO₄ → 6Fe₂O₃ + 6SO₂ + O₂(g) T 7003FeO + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂(g) T 200 Fe₂O₃ + SO₂ → FeO + FeSO₃ 6 Tokyo Inst.Tech. Ferrite T 1000 2MnFe₂O₄ + 3Na₂CO₃ + H₂O → 2Na₃MnFe₂O₆ + 3CO₂(g) +H₂(g) T 600 4Na₃MnFe₂O₆ + 6CO₂(g) → 4MnFe₂O₄ + 6Na₂CO₃ + O₂(g) 7 HallettAir Products 1965 T 800 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) E 25 2HCl →Cl₂(g) + H₂(g) 8 Gaz de France T 725 2K + 2KOH → 2K₂O + H₂(g) T 825 2K₂O→ 2K + K₂O₂ T 125 2K₂O₂ + 2H₂O → 4KOH + O₂(g) 9 Nickel Ferrite T 800NiMnFe₄O₆ + 2H₂O → NiMnFe₄O₈ + 2H₂(g) T 800 NiMnFe₄O₈ → NiMnFe₄O₆ +O₂(g) 10 Aachen Univ Julich 1972 T 850 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) +O₂(g) T 170 2CrCl₂ + 2HCl → 2CrCl₃ + H₂(g) T 800 2CrCl₃ → 2CrCl₂ +Cl₂(g) 11 Ispra Mark 1C T 100 2CuBr₂ + Ca(OH)₂ → 2CuO + 2CaBr₂ + H₂O T900 4CuO(s) → 2Cu₂O(s) + O₂(g) T 730 CaBr₂ + 2H₂O → Ca(OH)₂ + 2HBr T 100Cu₂O + 4HBr → 2CuBr₂ + H₂(g) + H₂O 12 LASL-U T 25 3CO₂ + U₃O₈ + H₂O →3UO₂CO₃ + H₂(g) T 250 3UO₂CO₃ → 3CO₂(g) + 3UO₃ T 700 6UO₃(s) →2U₃O₈(s) + O₂(g) 13 Ispra Mark 8 T 700 3MnCl₂ + 4H₂O → Mn₃O₄ + 6HCl +H₂(g) T 900 3MnO₂ → Mn₃O₄ + O₂(g) T 100 4HCl + Mn₃O₄ → 2MnCl₂(a) +MnO₂ + 2H₂O 14 Ispra Mark 6 T 850 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T170 2CrCl₂ + 2HCl → 2CrCl₃ + H₂(g) T 700 2CrCl₃ + 2FeCl₂ → 2CrCl₂ +2FeCl₃ T 420 2FeCl₃ → Cl₂(g) + 2FeCl₂ 15 Ispra Mark 4 T 850 2Cl₂(g) +2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T 100 2FeCl₂ + 2HCl + S → 2FeCl₃ + H₂S T 4202FeCl₃ → Cl₂(g) + 2FeCl₂ T 800 H₂S → S + H₂(g) 16 Ispra Mark 3 T 8502Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T 170 2VOCl₂ + 2HCl → 2VOCl₃ + H₂(g)T 200 2VOCl₃ → Cl₂(g) + 2VOCl₂ 17 Ispra Mark 2 (1972) T 100 Na₂O•MnO₂ +H₂O → 2NaOH(a) + MnO₂ T 487 4MnO₂(s) → 2Mn₂O₃(s) + O₂(g) T 800 Mn₂O₃ +4NaOH → 2Na₂O•MnO₂ + H₂(g) + H₂O 18 Ispra CO/Mn3O4 T 977 6Mn₂O₃ →4Mn₃O₄ + O₂(g) T 700 C(s) + H₂O(g) → CO(g) + H₂(g) T 700 CO(g) + 2Mn₃O₄→ C + 3Mn₂O₃ 19 Ispra Mark 7B T 1000 2Fe₂O₃ + 6Cl₂(g) → 4FeCl₃ + 3O₂(g)T 420 2FeCl₃ → Cl₂(g) + 2FeCl₂ T 650 3FeCl₂ + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl +H₂(g) T 350 4Fe₃O₄ + O₂(g) → 6Fe₂O₃ T 400 4HCl + O₂(g) → 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O20 Vanadium Chloride T 850 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T 252HCl + 2VCl₂ → 2VCl₃ + H₂(g) T 700 2VCl₃ → VCl₄ + VCl₂ T 25 2VCl₄ →Cl₂(g) + 2VCl₃ 21 Ispra Mark 7A T 420 2FeCl₃(l) → Cl₂(g) + 2FeCl₂ T 6503FeCl₂ + 4H₂O(g) → Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl(g) + H₂(g) T 350 4Fe₃O₄ + O₂(g) → 6Fe₂O₃T 1000 6Cl₂(g) + 2Fe₂O₃ → 4FeCl₃(g) + 3O₂(g) T 120 Fe₂O₃ + 6HCl(a) →2FeCl₃(a) + 3H₂O(l) 22 GA Cycle 23 T 800 H₂S(g) → S(g) + H₂(g) T 8502H₂SO₄(g) → 2SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) + O₂(g) T 700 3S + 2H₂O(g) → 2H₂S(g) +SO₂(g) T 25 3SO₂(g) + 2H₂O(l) → 2H₂SO₄(a) + S T 25 S(g) + O₂(g) → SO₂(g)23 US -Chlorine T 850 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T 200 2CuCl +2HCl → 2CuCl₂ + H₂(g) T 500 2CuCl₂ → 2CuCl + Cl₂(g) 24 Ispra Mark T 4202FeCl₃ → Cl₂(g) + 2FeCl₂ T 150 3Cl₂(g) + 2Fe₃O₄ + 12HCl → 6FeCl₃ +6H₂O + O₂(g) T 650 3FeCl₂ + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl + H₂(g) 25 Ispra Mark 6CT 850 2Cl₂(g) + 2H₂O(g) → 4HCl(g) + O₂(g) T 170 2CrCl₂ + 2HCl → 2CrCl₃ +H₂(g) T 700 2CrCl₃ + 2FeCl₂ → 2CrCl₂ + 2FeCl₃ T 500 2CuCl₂ → 2CuCl +Cl₂(g) T 300 CuCl + FeCl₃ → CuCl₂ + FeCl₂ *T = thermochemical, E =electrochemical.

TABLE 6 Thermally reversible reaction cycles regarding H₂O catalyst andH₂. [C. Perkins and A.W. Weimer, Solar-Thermal Production of RenewableHydrogen, AIChE Journal, 55 (2), (2009), pp. 286-293.] Cycle ReactionSteps High Temperature Cycles Zn/ZnO${ZnO}\overset{1600 - {1800{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{Zn} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{Zn} + {H_{2}O}}\overset{400{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{ZnO} + {H_{2}\overset{\_}{.}}}$FeO/Fe₃O₄${{Fe}_{3}O_{4}}\overset{2000 - {2300{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{3{FeO}} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{3{FeO}} + {H_{2}O}}\overset{400{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{{Fe}_{3}O_{4}} + H_{2}}$Cadmium carbonate${CdO}\overset{1450 - {1500{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{Cd} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{Cd} + {H_{2}O} + {CO}_{2}}\overset{350{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{CdCO}_{3} + H_{2}}$${CdCO}_{3}\overset{500{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{CO}_{2} + {CdO}}$Hybrid cadmium${CdO}\overset{1450 - {1500{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{Cd} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{Cd} + {2H_{2}O}}\overset{25{^\circ}{C.{electrochemical}}}{\rightarrow}{{{Cd}({OH})}_{2} + H_{2}}$${{Cd}({OH})}_{2}\overset{375{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{CdO} + {H_{2}O}}$Sodium manganese${{Mn}_{2}O_{3}}\overset{1400 - {1600{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{2{MnO}} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{2{MnO}} + {2{NaOH}}}\overset{627{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{2{NaMnO}_{2}} + H_{2}}$${{2{NaMnO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}}\overset{25{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{{Mn}_{2}O_{3}} + {2{NaOH}}}$M-Ferrite (M = Co, Ni, Zn)${{Fe}_{3 - x}M_{x}O_{4}}\overset{1200 - {1400{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{{Fe}_{3 - x}M_{x}O_{4 - \delta}} + {\frac{\delta}{2}O_{2}}}$${{{Fe}_{3 - x}M_{x}O_{4 - \delta}} + {\delta H_{2}O}}\overset{1000 - {1200{^\circ}{C.}}}{\rightarrow}{{{Fe}_{3 - x}M_{x}O_{4}} + {\delta H_{2}}}$Low Temperature Cycles Sulfur-Iodine${H_{2}{SO}_{4}}\overset{850{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{SO}_{2} + {H_{2}O} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${I_{2} + {SO}_{4} + {2H_{2}O}}\overset{100{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{2{HI}} + {H_{2}{SO}_{4}}}$${2{HI}}\overset{300{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{I_{2} + H_{2}}$ Hybridsulfur${H_{2}{SO}_{4}}\overset{850{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{SO}_{2} + {H_{2}O} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{SO}_{2} + {2H_{2}O}}\overset{77{^\circ}{C.{electrochemical}}}{\rightarrow}{{H_{2}{SO}_{4}} + H_{2}}$Hybrid copper chloride${{Cu}_{2}{OCl}_{2}}\overset{550{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{2{CuCl}} + {\frac{1}{2}O_{2}}}$${{2{Cu}} + {2{HCl}}}\overset{425{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{H_{2} + {2{CuCl}}}$${4{CuCl}}\overset{25{^\circ}{C.{electrochemical}}}{\rightarrow}{{2{Cu}} + {2{CuCl}_{2}}}$${{2{CuCl}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}}\overset{325{^\circ}{C.}}{\rightarrow}{{{Cu}_{2}{OCl}_{2}} + {2{HCl}}}$

TABLE 7 Thermally reversible reaction cycles regarding H₂O catalyst andH₂. [S. Ahanades, P. Charvin, G. Flamant, P. Neveu, Screening ofWater-Splitting Thermochemical Cycles Potentially Attractive forHydrogen Production by Concentrated Solar Energy, Energy, 31, (2006),pp. 2805-2822.] Number of Maximum List of chemical temperature No IDName of the cycle elements steps (° C.) Reactions 6 ZnO/Zn Zn 2 2000 ZnO→ Zn + 1/2O₂ (2000° C.)  Zn + H₂O → ZnO + H₂ (1100° C.)  7 Fe₃O₄/FeO Fe2 2200 Fe₃O₄ → 3FeO + 1/2O₂ (2200° C.)  3FeO + H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + H₂ (400°C.) 194 In₂O₃/In₂O In 2 2200 In₂O₃ → In₂O + O₂ (2200° C.)  In2O + 2H₂O →In₂O₃ + 2H₂ (800° C.) 194 SnO₂/Sn Sn 2 2650 SnO₂ → Sn + O₂ (2650° C.) Sn + 2H₂O → SnO₂ + 2H₂ (600° C.) 83 MnO/MnSO₄ Mn, S 2 1100 MnSO₄ → MnO +SO₂ + 1/2O₂ (1100° C.)  MnO + H₂O + SO₂ → MnSO₄ + H₂ (250° C.) 84FeO/FeSO₄ Fe, S 2 1100 FeSO₄ → FeO + SO₂ + 1/2O₂ (1100° C.)  FeO + H₂O +SO₂ → FeSO₄ + H₂ (250° C.) 86 CoO/CoSO₄ Co, S 2 1100 CoSO₄ → CoO + SO₂ +1/2O₂ (1100° C.)  CoO + H₂O + SO₂ → CoSO₄ + H₂ (200° C.) 200 Fe₃O₄/FeCl₂Fe, Cl 2 1500 Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl → 3FeCl₂ + 3H₂O + 1/2O₂ (1500° C.)  3FeCl₂ +4H₂O → Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl + H₂ (700° C.) 14 FeSO₄ Julich Fe, S 3 18003FeO(s) + H₂O → Fe₃O₄(s) + H₂ (200° C.) Fe₃O₄(s) + FeSO₄ → 3Fe₂O₃(s) +3SO₂(g) + 1/2O₂ (800° C.) 3Fe₂O₃(s) + 3SO₂ → 3FeSO₄ + 3FeO(s) (1800°C.)  85 FeSO₄ Fe, S 3 2300 3FeO(s) + H₂O → Fe₃O₄(s) + H₂ (200° C.)Fe₃O₄(s) + 3SO₃(g) → 3FeSO₄ + 1/2O₂ (300° C.) FeSO₄ → FeO + SO₃ (2300°C.)  109 C7 IGT Fe, S 3 1000 Fe₂O₃(s) + 2SO₂(g) + H₂O → 2FeSO₄(s) + H₂(125° C.) 2FeSO₄(s) → Fe₂O₃(s) + SO₂(g) + SO₃(g) (700° C.) SO₃(g) →SO₂(g) + 1/2O₂(g) (1000° C.)  21 Shell Process Cu, S 3 1750 6Cu(s) +3H₂O → 3Cu₂O(s) + 3H₂ (500° C.) Cu₂O(s) + 2SO₂ + 3/2O₂ → 2CuSO₄ (300°C.) 2Cu₂O(s) + 2CuSO₄ → 6Cu + 2SO₂ + 3O₂ (1750° C.)  87 CuSO₄ Cu, S 31500 Cu₂O(s) + H₂O(g) → Cu(s) + Cu(OH)₂ (1500° C.)  Cu(OH)₂ + SO₂(g) →CuSO₄ + H₂ (300° C.) CuSO₄ + Cu(s) → Cu₂O(s) + SO₂ + 1/2O₂ (1500° C.) 110 LASL BaSO₄ Ba, Mo, S 3 1300 SO₂ + H₂O + BaMoO₄ → BaSO₃ + MoO₃ + H₂O(300° C.) BaSO₃ + H₂O → BaSO₄ + H₂ BaSO₄(s) + MoO₃(s) → BaMoO₄(s) +SO₂(g) + 1/2O₂ (1300° C.)  4 Mark 9 Fe, Cl 3  900 3FeCl₂ + 4H₂O →Fe3O₄ + 6HCl + H₂ (680° C.) Fe₃O₄ + 3/2Cl₂ + 6HCl → 3FeCl₃ + 3H₂O +1/2O₂ (900° C.) 3FeCl₃ → 3FeCl₂ + 3/2Cl₂ (420° C.) 16 Euratom 1972 Fe,Cl 3 1000 H₂O + Cl₂ → 2HCl + 1/2O₂ (1000° C.)  2HCl + 2FeCl₂ → 2FeCl₃ +H₂ (600° C.) 2FeCl₃ → 2FeCl₂ + Cl₂ (350° C.) 20 Cr, Cl Julich Cr, Cl 31600 2CrCl₂(s, T_(f) = 815° C.) + 2HCl → 2CrCl₃(s) + H₂ (200° C.)2CrCl₃(s, T_(f) = 1150° C.) → 2CrCl₂(s) + Cl₂ (1600° C.)  H₂O + Cl₂ →2HCl + 1/2O₂ (1000° C.)  27 Mark 8 Mn, Cl 3 1000 6MnCl₂(l) + 8H₂O →2Mn₃O₄ + 12HCl + 2H₂ (700° C.) 3Mn₃O₄(s) + 12HCl → 6MnCl₂(s) +3MnO₂(s) + 6H₂O (100° C.) 3MnO₂(s) → Mn₃O₄(s) + O₂ (1000° C.)  37 TaFunk Ta, Cl 3 2200 H₂O + Cl₂ → 2HCl + 1/2O₂ (1000° C.)  2TaCl₂ + 2HCl →2TaCl₃ + H₂ (100° C.) 2TaCl₃ → 2TaCl₂ + Cl₂ (2200° C.)  78 Mark 3 V, Cl3 1000 Cl₂(g) + H₂O(g) → 2HCl(g) + 1/2O₂(g) (1000° C.)  Euratom JRC2VOCl₂(s) + 2HCl(g) → 2VOCl₃(g) + H₂(g) (170° C.) Ispra (Italy)2VOCl₃(g) → Cl₂(g) + 2VOCl₂(s) (200° C.) 144 Bi, Cl Bi, Cl 3 1700 H₂O +Cl₂ → 2HCl + 1/2O₂ (1000° C.)  2BiCl₂ + 2HCl → 2BiCl₃ + H₂ (300° C.)2BiCl₃(T_(f) = 233° C., T_(eb) = 441° C.) → 2BiCl₂ + Cl₂ (1700° C.)  146Fe, Cl Julich Fe, Cl 3 1800 3Fe(s) + 4H₂O → Fe₃O₄(s) + 4H₂ (700° C.)Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl → 3FeCl₂(g) + 3H₂O + 1/2O₂ (1800° C.)  3FeCl₂ + 3H₂ →3Fe(s) + 6HCl (1300° C.)  147 Fe, Cl Cologne Fe, Cl 3 1800 3/2FeO(s) +3/2Fe(s) + 2.5H₂O → Fe₃O₄(s) + 2.5H₂ (1000° C.)  Fe₃O₄ + 6HCl →3FeCl₂(g) + 3H₂O + 1/2O₂ (1800° C.)  3FeCl₂ + H₂O + 3/2H₂ →_(3/2)FeO(s) + 3/2Fe(s) + 6HCl (700° C.) 25 Mark 2 Mn, Na 3  900Mn₂O₃(s) + 4NaOH → 2Na₂O•MnO₂ + H₂O + H₂ (900° C.) 2Na₂O•MnO₂ + 2H₂O →4NaOH + 2MnO₂(s) (100° C.) 2MnO₂(s) → Mn₂O₃(s) + 1/2O₂ (600° C.) 28 Li,Mn LASL Mn, Li 3 1000 6LiOH + 2Mn₃O₄ → 3Li₂O•Mn₂O₃ + 2H₂O + H₂ (700° C.)3Li₂O•Mn₂O₃ + 3H₂O → 6LiOH + 3Mn₂O₃  (80° C.) 3Mn₂O₃ → 2Mn₃O₄ + 1/2O₂(1000° C.)  199 Mn PSI Mn, Na 3 1500 2MnO + 2NaOH → 2NaMaO₂ + H₂ (800°C.) 2NaMnO₂ + H₂O → Mn₂O₃ + 2NaOH (100° C.) Mn₂O₃(l) → 2MnO(s) + 1/2O₂(1500° C.)  178 Fe, M ORNL Fe, 3 1300 2Fe₃O₄ + 6MOH → 3MFeO₂ + 2H₂O + H₂(500° C.) (M = Li, 3MFeO₂ + 3H₂O → 6MOH + 3Fe₂O₃ (100° C.) K, Na)3Fe₂O₃(s) → 2Fe₃O₄(s) + 1/2O₂ (1300° C.)  33 Sn Souriau Sn 3 1700Sn(l) + 2H₂O → SnO₂ + 2H₂ (400° C.) 2SnO₂(s) → 2SnO + O₂ (1700° C.) 2SnO(s) → SnO₂ + Sn(l) (700° C.) 177 Co ORNL Co, Ba 3 1000 CoO(s) +xBa(OH)₂(s) → Ba_(x)CoO_(y)(s) + (y − x − 1)H₂ + (1 + 2x − y) H₂O (850°C.) Ba_(x)CoO_(y)(s) + xH₂O → xBa(OH)₂(s) + CoO(y − x)(s) (100° C.)CoO(y − x)(s) → CoO(s) + (y − x − 1)/2O₂ (1000° C.)  183 Ce, Ti ORNL Ce,Ti, Na 3 1300 2CeO₂(s) + 3TiO₂(s) → Ce₂O₃•3TiO₂ + 1/2O₂ (800-1300°C.)     Ce₂O₃•3TiO₂ + 6NaOH → 2CeO₂ + 3Na₂TiO₃ + (800° C.) 2H₂O + H₂CeO₂ + 3NaTiO₃ + 3H₂O → CeO₂(s) + 3TiO₂(s) + (150° C.) 6NaOH 269 Ce, ClGA Ce, Cl 3 1000 H₂O + Cl₂→ 2HCl + 1/2O₂ (1000° C.)  2CeO₂ + 8HCl →2CeCl₃ + 4H₂O + Cl₂ (250° C.) 2CeCl₃ + 4H₂O → 2CeO₂ + 6HCl + H₂ (800°C.)

Reactants to form H₂O catalyst may comprise a source of O such as an Ospecies and a source of H. The source of the O species may comprise atleast one of O₂, air, and a compound or admixture of compoundscomprising O. The compound comprising oxygen may comprise an oxidant.The compound comprising oxygen may comprise at least one of an oxide,oxyhydroxide, hydroxide, peroxide, and a superoxide. Suitable exemplarymetal oxides are alkali oxides such as Li₂O, Na₂O, and K₂O, alkalineearth oxides such as MgO, CaO, SrO, and BaO, transition oxides such asNiO, Ni₂O₃, FeO, Fe₂O₃, and CoO, and inner transition and rare earthmetals oxides, and those of other metals and metalloids such as those ofAl, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and mixtures ofthese and other elements comprising oxygen. The oxides may comprise aoxide anion such as those of the present disclosure such as a metaloxide anion and a cation such as an alkali, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition and rare earth metal cation, and those of other metalsand metalloids such as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi,Se, and Te such as MM′_(2x)O_(3x+1) or MM′_(2x)O₄ (M=alkaline earth,M′=transition metal such as Fe or Ni or Mn, x=integer) andM₂M′_(2x)O_(3x+1) or M₂M′_(2x)O₄ (M=alkali, M′=transition metal such asFe or Ni or Mn, x=integer). Suitable exemplary metal oxyhydroxides areAlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH) (α-MnO(OH) groutiteand γ-MnO(OH) manganite), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH),InO(OH), Ni_(1/2)Co_(1/2)O(OH), and Ni_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O(OH).Suitable exemplary hydroxides are those of metals such as alkali,alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metals andthose of other metals and metalloids such as such as Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge,Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, and mixtures. Suitable complex ionhydroxides are Li₂Zn(OH)₄, Na₂Zn(OH)₄, Li₂Sn(OH)₄, Na₂Sn(OH)₄,Li₂Pb(OH)₄, Na₂Pb(OH)₄, LiSb(OH)₄, NaSb(OH)₄, LiAl(OH)₄, NaAl(OH)₄,LiCr(OH)₄, NaCr(OH)₄, Li₂Sn(OH)₆, and Na₂Sn(OH)₆. Additional exemplarysuitable hydroxides are at least one from Co(OH)₂, Zn(OH)₂, Ni(OH)₂,other transition metal hydroxides, Cd(OH)₂, Sn(OH)₂, and Pb(OH).Suitable exemplary peroxides are H₂O₂, those of organic compounds, andthose of metals such as M₂O₂ where M is an alkali metal such as Li₂O₂,Na₂O₂, K₂O₂, other ionic peroxides such as those of alkaline earthperoxides such as Ca, Sr, or Ba peroxides, those of otherelectropositive metals such as those of lanthanides, and covalent metalperoxides such as those of Zn, Cd, and Hg. Suitable exemplarysuperoxides are those of metals MO₂ where M is an alkali metal such asNaO₂, KO₂, RbO₂, and CsO₂, and alkaline earth metal superoxides. In anembodiment, the solid fuel comprises an alkali peroxide and hydrogensource such as a hydride, hydrocarbon, or hydrogen storage material suchas BH₃NH_(3.)The reaction mixture may comprise a hydroxide such as thoseof alkaline, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rareearth metals, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and other elements that formhydroxides and a source of oxygen such as a compound comprising at leastone an oxyanion such as a carbonate such as one comprising alkaline,alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metals, andAl, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, and others of the present disclosure. Other suitablecompounds comprising oxygen are at least one of oxyanion compound of thegroup of aluminate, tungstate, zirconate, titanate, sulfate, phosphate,carbonate, nitrate, chromate, dichromate, and manganate, oxide,oxyhydroxide, peroxide, superoxide, silicate, titanate, tungstate, andothers of the present disclosure. An exemplary reaction of a hydroxideand a carbonate is given by

$\begin{matrix}{{{Ca}({OH})}_{2} + {Li_{2}CO_{3}{to}{CaO}} + {H_{2}O} + {{Li}_{2}O} + {CO}_{2}} & (87)\end{matrix}$

In other embodiments, the oxygen source is gaseous or readily forms agas such as NO₂, NO, N₂O, CO₂, P₂O₃, P₂O₅, and SO₂. The reduced oxideproduct from the formation of H₂O catalyst such as C, N, NH₃, P, or Smay be converted back to the oxide again by combustion with oxygen or asource thereof as given in Mills Prior Applications. The cell mayproduce excess heat that may be used for heating applications, or theheat may be converted to electricity by means such as a Rankine orBrayton system. Alternatively, the cell may be used to synthesizelower-energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrino and hydrinohydride ions and corresponding compounds.

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture to form hydrinos for at least oneof production of lower-energy hydrogen species and compounds andproduction of energy comprises a source of atomic hydrogen and a sourceof catalyst comprising at least one of H and O such those of the presentdisclosure such as H₂O catalyst. The reaction mixture may furthercomprise an acid such as H₂SO₃, H₂SO₄, H₂CO₃, HNO₂, HNO₃, HClO₄, H₃PO₃,and H₃PO₄ or a source of an acid such as an acid anhydride or anhydrousacid. The latter may comprise at least one of the group of SO₂, SO₃,CO₂, NO₂, N₂O₃, N₂O₅, Cl₂O₇, PO₂, P₂O₃, and P₂O₅. The reaction mixturemay comprise at least one of a base and a basic anhydride such as M₂O(M=alkali), M′O (M′=alkaline earth), ZnO or other transition metaloxide, CdO, CoO, SnO, AgO, HgO, or Al₂O₃. Further exemplary anhydridescomprise metals that are stable to H₂O such as Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co,Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn,W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The anhydride may be an alkalimetal or alkaline earth metal oxide, and the hydrated compound maycomprise a hydroxide. The reaction mixture may comprise an oxyhydroxidesuch as FeOOH, NiOOH, or CoOOH. The reaction mixture may comprise atleast one of a source of H₂O and H₂O. The H₂O may be formed reversiblyby hydration and dehydration reactions in the presence of atomichydrogen. Exemplary reactions to form H₂O catalyst are

$\begin{matrix}{{{{Mg}({OH})}_{2}{to}{MgO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (88) \\{{2{LiOH}{to}{Li}_{2}O} + {H_{2}O}} & (89) \\{{H_{2}CO_{3}{to}{CO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (90) \\{{2{FeOOH}{to}{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {H_{2}O}} & (91)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, H₂O catalyst is formed by dehydration of at least onecompound comprising phosphate such as salts of phosphate, hydrogenphosphate, and dihydrogen phosphate such as those of cations such ascations comprising metals such as alkali, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition, and rare earth metals, and those of other metals andmetalloids such as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se,and Te, and mixtures to form a condensed phosphate such as at least oneof polyphosphates such as [P_(n)O_(3n+1)]^((n+2)−), long chainmetaphosphates such as [(PO₃)_(n)]^(n−), cyclic metaphosphates such as[(PO₃)_(n)]^(n−) with n≥3, and ultraphosphates such as P₄O₁₀. Exemplaryreactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{{\left( {n - 2} \right){NaH}_{2}PO_{4}} + {2{Na}_{2}{HPO}_{4}}}\overset{heat}{\rightarrow}{{{Na}_{n + 2}P_{n}{O_{{3n} + 1}({polyphosphate})}} + {\left( {n - 1} \right)H_{2}O}}} & (92) \\{{n{NaH}_{2}{PO}_{4}}\overset{heat}{\rightarrow}{{\left( {NaPO}_{3} \right)_{n}({metaphosphate})} + {{nH}_{2}O}}} & (93)\end{matrix}$

The reactants of the dehydration reaction may comprise R—Ni that maycomprise at least one of Al(OH)₃, and Al₂O₃. The reactants may furthercomprise a metal M such as those of the present disclosure such as analkali metal, a metal hydride MH, a metal hydroxide such as those of thepresent disclosure such as an alkali hydroxide and a source of hydrogensuch as H₂ as well as intrinsic hydrogen. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{{Al}({OH})}_{3}} + {{to}{Al}_{2}O_{3}} + {3H_{2}O}} & (94) \\{{{Al}_{2}O_{3}} + {2{NaOH}{to}2{NaAlO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (95) \\{{3{MH}} + {{Al}({OH})}_{3} + {{to}M_{3}{Al}} + {3H_{2}O}} & (96) \\{{{{MoCu} + {2{M{OH}}} + {4O_{2}{to}M_{2}{MoO}_{4}} + {CuO} +}}\text{⁠}{{H_{2}{O\left( {{M = {Li}},{Na},K,{Rb},{Cs}} \right)}}}} & (97)\end{matrix}$

The reaction product may comprise an alloy. The R—Ni may be regeneratedby rehydration. The reaction mixture and dehydration reaction to formH₂O catalyst may comprise and involve an oxyhydroxide such as those ofthe present disclosure as given in the exemplary reaction:

$\begin{matrix}{{3{{Co}({OH})}_{2}{to}2{CoOOH}} + {Co} + {2H_{2}O}} & (98)\end{matrix}$

The atomic hydrogen may be formed from H₂ gas by dissociation. Thehydrogen dissociator may be one of those of the present disclosure suchas R—Ni or a noble metal or transition metal on a support such as Ni orPt or Pd on carbon or Al₂O₃. Alternatively, the atomic H may be from Hpermeation through a membrane such as those of the present disclosure.In an embodiment, the cell comprises a membrane such as a ceramicmembrane to allow H₂ to diffuse through selectively while preventing H₂Odiffusion. In an embodiment, at least one of H₂ and atomic H aresupplied to the cell by electrolysis of an electrolyte comprising asource of hydrogen such as an aqueous or molten electrolyte comprisingH₂O. In an embodiment, H₂O catalyst is formed reversibly by dehydrationof an acid or base to the anhydride form. In an embodiment, the reactionto form the catalyst H₂O and hydrinos is propagated by changing at leastone of the cell pH or activity, temperature, and pressure wherein thepressure may be changed by changing the temperature. The activity of aspecies such as the acid, base, or anhydride may be changed by adding asalt as known by those skilled in the art. In an embodiment, thereaction mixture may comprise a material such as carbon that may absorbor be a source of a gas such as H₂ or acid anhydride gas to the reactionto form hydrinos. The reactants may be in any desired concentrations andratios. The reaction mixture may be molten or comprise an aqueousslurry.

In another embodiment, the source of the H₂O catalyst is the reactionbetween an acid and a base such as the reaction between at least one ofa hydrohalic acid, sulfuric, nitric, and nitrous, and a base. Othersuitable acid reactants are aqueous solutions of H₂SO₄, HCl, HX(X-halide), H₃PO₄, HClO₄, HNO₃, HNO, HNO₂, H₂S, H₂CO₃, H₂MoO₄, HNbO₃,H₂B₄O₇ (M tetraborate), HBO₂, H₂WO₄, H₂CrO₄, H₂Cr₂O₇, H₂TiO₃, HZrO₃,MAlO₂, HMn₂O₄, HIO₃, HIO₄, HClO₄, or an organic acidic such as formic oracetic acid. Suitable exemplary bases are a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oroxide comprising an alkali, alkaline earth, transition, innertransition, or rare earth metal, or Al, Ga, In, Sn, or Pb.

In an embodiment, the reactants may comprise an acid or base that reactswith base or acid anhydride, respectively, to form H₂O catalyst and thecompound of the cation of the base and the anion of the acid anhydrideor the cation of the basic anhydride and the anion of the acid,respectively. The exemplary reaction of the acidic anhydride SiO₂ withthe base NaOH is

$\begin{matrix}{{4{NaOH}} + {{SiO}_{2}{to}{Na}_{4}{SiO}_{4}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (99)\end{matrix}$

wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding acid is

$\begin{matrix}{{H_{4}{SiO}_{4}{to}2H_{2}O} + {SiO}_{2}} & (100)\end{matrix}$

Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may comprise an element, metal,alloy, or mixture such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni,Fe, Ta, V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. The correspondingoxide may comprise at least one of MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO,Ni₂O₃, FeO, Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂,Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, MnO,Mn₃O₄, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₂O₇, HfO₂, Co₂O₃, CoO, Co₃O₄, Co₂O₃, and MgO. Inan exemplary embodiment, the base comprises a hydroxide such as analkali hydroxide such as MOH (M=alkali) such as LiOH that may form thecorresponding basic oxide such as M₂O such as Li₂O, and H2O. The basicoxide may react with the anhydride oxide to form a product oxide. In anexemplary reaction of LiOH with the anhydride oxide with the release ofH₂O, the product oxide compound may comprise Li₂MoO₃ or Li₂MoO₄,Li₂TiO₃, Li₂ZrO₃, Li₂SiO₃, LiAlO₂, LiNiO₂, LiFeO₂, LiTaO₃, LiVO₃,Li₂B₄O₇, Li₂NbO₃, Li₂SeO₃, Li₃PO₄, Li₂SeO₄, Li₂TeO₃, Li₂TeO₄, Li₂WO₄,Li₂CrO₄, Li₂Cr₂O₇, Li₂MnO₄, Li₂HfO₃, LiCoO₂, and MgO. Other suitableexemplary oxides are at least one of the group of As₂O₃, As₂O₅, Sb₂O₃,Sb₂O₄, Sb₂O₅, Bi₂O₃, SO₂, SO₃, CO₂, NO₂, N₂O₃, N₂O₅, Cl₂O₇, PO₂, P₂O₃,and P₂O₅, and other similar oxides known to those skilled in the art.Another example is given by Eq. (91). Suitable reactions of metal oxidesare

$\begin{matrix}{{2{LiOH}} + {{NiO}{to}{Li}_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (101) \\{{3{LiOH}} + {{NiO}{to}{LiNiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O} + {{Li}_{2}O} + {{1/2}H_{2}}} & (102) \\{{4{LiOH}} + {{Ni}_{2}O_{3}{to}2{Li}_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O} + {{1/2}O_{2}}} & (103) \\{{2{LiOH}} + {{Ni}_{2}O_{3}{to}2{LiNiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (104)\end{matrix}$

Other transition metals such as Fe, Cr, and Ti, inner transition, andrare earth metals and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In, Si,Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te may substitute for Ni, and otheralkali metal such as Li, Na, Rb, and Cs may substitute for K. In anembodiment, the oxide may comprise Mo wherein during the reaction toform H₂O, nascent H₂O catalyst and H may form that further react to formhydrinos. Exemplary solid fuel reactions and possible oxidationreduction pathways are

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{3{MoO}_{2}} + {4{LiOH}}}\rightarrow{{2{Li}_{2}{MoO}_{4}} + {Mo} + {2H_{2}O}} \right. & (105) \\\left. {{2{MoO}_{2}} + {4{LiOH}}}\rightarrow{{2{Li}_{2}{MoO}_{4}} + {2H_{2}}} \right. & (106) \\\left. O^{2 -}\rightarrow{{1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {2e^{-}}} \right. & (107) \\\left. {{2H_{2}O} + {2e^{-}}}\rightarrow{{2{OH}^{-}} + H_{2}} \right. & (108) \\\left. {{2H_{2}O} + {2e^{-}}}\rightarrow{{2{OH}^{-}} + H + {H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}} \right. & (109) \\\left. {{Mo}^{4 +} + {4e^{-}}}\rightarrow{Mo} \right. & (110)\end{matrix}$

The reaction may further comprise a source of hydrogen such as hydrogengas and a dissociator such as Pd/Al₂O₃. The hydrogen may be any ofproteium, deuterium, or tritium or combinations thereof. The reaction toform H₂O catalyst may comprise the reaction of two hydroxides to formwater. The cations of the hydroxides may have different oxidation statessuch as those of the reaction of an alkali metal hydroxide with atransition metal or alkaline earth hydroxide. The reaction mixture andreaction may further comprise and involve H₂ from a source as given inthe exemplary reaction:

$\begin{matrix}{{LiOH} + {2{{Co}\left( {OH} \right)}_{2}} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiCoO}_{2}} + {3H_{2}O} + {Co}} & (111)\end{matrix}$

The reaction mixture and reaction may further comprise and involve ametal M such as an alkali or an alkaline earth metal as given in theexemplary reaction:

$\begin{matrix}{M + {LiOH} + {{{Co}({OH})}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiCoO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O} + {MH}} & (112)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a metal oxide and ahydroxide that may serve as a source of H and optionally another sourceof H wherein the metal such as Fe of the metal oxide can have multipleoxidation states such that it undergoes an oxidation-reduction reactionduring the reaction to form H₂O to serve as the catalyst to react with Hto form hydrinos. An example is FeO wherein Fe²⁺ can undergo oxidationto Fe³⁺ during the reaction to form the catalyst. An exemplary reactionis

$\begin{matrix}{{FeO} + {3{LiOH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {LiFeO}_{2} + {H\left( {1\text{/}p} \right)} + {{Li}_{2}O}} & (113)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, at least one reactant such as a metal oxide,hydroxide, or oxyhydroxide serves as an oxidant wherein the metal atomsuch as Fe, Ni, Mo, or Mn may be in an oxidation state that is higherthan another possible oxidation state. The reaction to form the catalystand hydrinos may cause the atom to undergo a reduction to at least onelower oxidation state. Exemplary reactions of metal oxides, hydroxides,and oxyhydroxides to form H₂O catalyst are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{KOH}} + {{NiO}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} K_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (114) \\{{3{KOH}} + {{NiO}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{KNiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O} + {K_{2}O} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}}} & (115) \\{{2{KOH}} + {{Ni}_{2}O_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{KNiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (116) \\{{4{KOH}} + {{Ni}_{2}O_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2K_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}}} & (117) \\{{2{KOH}} + {{{Ni}({OH})}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} K_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (118) \\{{2{LiOH}} + {{MoO}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Li}_{2}{MoO}_{4}} + {H_{2}O}} & (119) \\{{3{KOH}} + {{{Ni}({OH})}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{KNiO}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O} + {K_{2}O} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}}} & (120) \\{{2{KOH}} + {2{NiOOH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2K_{2}{NiO}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O} + {NiO} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}}} & (121) \\{{KOH} + {{NiOOH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{KNiO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (122) \\{{2{NaOH}} + {{Fe}_{2}O_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NaFeO}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (123)\end{matrix}$

Other transition metals such as Ni, Fe, Cr, and Ti, inner transition,and rare earth metals and other metals or metalloids such as Al, Ga, In,Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te may substitute for Ni or Fe, andother alkali metals such as Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs may substitute for Kor Na. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least one ofan oxide and a hydroxide of metals that are stable to H₂O such as Cu,Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se,Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Additionally,the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen such as H₂ gas andoptionally a dissociator such as a noble metal on a support. In anembodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises mixture of atleast one of a metal halide such as at least one of a transition metalhalide such as a bromide such as FeBr₂ and a metal that forms aoxyhydroxide, hydroxide, or oxide and H₂O. In an embodiment, the solidfuel or energetic material comprises a mixture of at least one of ametal oxide, hydroxide, and an oxyhydroxide such as at least one of atransition metal oxide such as Ni₂O₃ and H₂O.

The exemplary reaction of the basic anhydride NiO with acid HCl is

$\begin{matrix}{{2{HCl}} + {{NiO}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {NiCl}_{2}} & (124)\end{matrix}$

wherein the dehydration reaction of the corresponding base is

$\begin{matrix}{{{{Ni}({OH})}_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {NiO}} & (125)\end{matrix}$

The reactants may comprise at least one of a Lewis acid or base and aBronsted-Lowry acid or base. The reaction mixture and reaction mayfurther comprise and involve a compound comprising oxygen wherein theacid reacts with the compound comprising oxygen to form water as givenin the exemplary reaction:

$\begin{matrix}{{2{HX}} + {{{PO}X}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {PX}_{5}} & (126)\end{matrix}$

(X=halide). Similar compounds as PDX₃ are suitable such as those with Preplaced by S. Other suitable exemplary anhydrides may comprise an oxideof an element, metal, alloy, or mixture that is soluble in acid such asan a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, or oxide comprising an alkali, alkalineearth, transition, inner transition, or rare earth metal, or Al, Ga, In,Sn, or Pb such as one from the group of Mo, Ti, Zr, Si, Al, Ni, Fe, Ta,V, B, Nb, Se, Te, W, Cr, Mn, Hf, Co, and Mg. The corresponding oxide maycomprise MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO or Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅,VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃,WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, MnO, Mn₃O₄, Mn₂O₃, MnO₂, Mn₂O₇,HfO₂, Co₂O₃, CoO, Co₃O₄, Co₂O₃, and MgO. Other suitable exemplary oxidesare of those of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe,Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti,Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In an exemplary embodiment, the acid comprises ahydrohalic acid and the product is H₂O and the metal halide of theoxide. The reaction mixture further comprises a source of hydrogen suchas H₂ gas and a dissociator such as Pt/C wherein the H and H₂O catalystreact to form hydrinos.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a H₂ source such as apermeation membrane or H₂ gas and a dissociator such as Pt/C and asource of H₂O catalyst comprising an oxide or hydroxide that is reducedto H₂O. The metal of the oxide or hydroxide may form metal hydride thatserves as a source of H. Exemplary reactions of an alkali hydroxide andoxide such as LiOH and Li₂O are

$\begin{matrix}{{LiOH} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {LiH}} & (127) \\{{{Li}_{2}O} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiOH}} + {LiH}} & (128)\end{matrix}$

The reaction mixture may comprise oxides or hydroxides of metals thatundergo hydrogen reduction to H₂O such as those of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi,Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl,Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In and a source of hydrogen suchas H₂ gas and a dissociator such as Pt/C.

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a H₂ source suchas H₂ gas and a dissociator such as Pt/C and a peroxide compound such asH₂O₂ that decomposes to H₂O catalyst and other products comprisingoxygen such as O₂. Some of the H₂ and decomposition product such as O₂may react to also form H₂O catalyst.

In an embodiment, the reaction to form H₂O as the catalyst comprises anorganic dehydration reaction such as that of an alcohol such as apolyalcohol such as a sugar to an aldehyde and H₂O. In an embodiment,the dehydration reaction involves the release of H₂O from a terminalalcohol to form an aldehyde. The terminal alcohol may comprise a sugaror a derivative thereof that releases H₂O that may serve as a catalyst.Suitable exemplary alcohols are meso-erythritol, galactitol or dulcitol,and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA). An exemplary reaction mixture comprises asugar+hydrogen dissociator such as Pd/Al₂O₃+H₂. Alternatively, thereaction comprises a dehydration of a metal salt such as one having atleast one water of hydration. In an embodiment, the dehydrationcomprises the loss of H₂O to serve as the catalyst from hydrates such asaquo ions and salt hydrates such as BaI₂ 2H₂O and EuBr₂ nH₂O.

In an embodiment, the reaction to form H2O catalyst comprises thehydrogen reduction of a compound comprising oxygen such as CO, anoxyanion such as MNO₃ (M=alkali), a metal oxide such as NiO, Ni₂O₃,Fe₂O₃, or SnO, a hydroxide such as Co(OH)₂, oxyhydroxides such as FeOOH,CoOOH, and NiOOH, and compounds, oxyanions, oxides, hydroxides,oxyhydroxides, peroxides, superoxides, and other compositions of mattercomprising oxygen such as those of the present disclosure that arehydrogen reducible to H₂O. Exemplary compounds comprising oxygen or anoxyanion are SOCl₂, Na₂S₂O₃, NaMnO₄, POBr₃, K₂S₂O₈, CO, CO₂, NO, NO₂,P₂O₅, N₂O₅, N₂O, SO₂, I₂O₅, NaClO₂, NaClO, K₂SO₄, and KHSO₄. The sourceof hydrogen for hydrogen reduction may be at least one of H₂ gas and ahydride such as a metal hydride such as those of the present disclosure.The reaction mixture may further comprise a reductant that may form acompound or ion comprising oxygen. The cation of the oxyanion may form aproduct compound comprising another anion such as a halide, otherchalcogenide, phosphide, other oxyanion, nitride, silicide, arsenide, orother anion of the present disclosure. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{4{{NaNO}_{3}(c)}} + {5{{MgH}_{2}(c)}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 5{{MgO}(c)}} + {4{{NaOH}(c)}} + {3H_{2}{O(l)}} + {2{N_{2}(g)}}} & (129) \\{{P_{2}{O_{5}(c)}} + {6{{NaH}(c)}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{Na}_{3}{{PO}_{4}(c)}} + {3H_{2}{O(g)}}} & (130) \\{{{NaClO}_{4}(c)} + {2{{MgH}_{2}(c)}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{{MgO}(c)}} + {{NaCl}(c)} + {2H_{2}{O(l)}}} & (131) \\{{KHSO}_{4} + {4H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{KHS}} + {4H_{2}O}} & (132) \\{{K_{2}{SO}_{4}} + {4H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{KOH}} + {2H_{2}O} + {H_{2}S}} & (133) \\{{LiNO}_{3} + {4H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiNH}_{2}} + {3H_{2}O}} & (134) \\{{GeO}_{2} + {2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Ge}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (135) \\{{CO}_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} C} + {2H_{2}O}} & (136) \\{{PbO}_{2} + {2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2H_{2}O} + {Pb}} & (137) \\{{V_{2}O_{5}} + {5H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2V} + {5H_{2}O}} & (138) \\{{C{o\left( {OH} \right)}_{2}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Co}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (139) \\{{{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {3H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{Fe}} + {3H_{2}O}} & (140) \\{{3{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{Fe}_{3}O_{4}} + {H_{2}O}} & (141) \\{{{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{FeO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (142) \\{{{Ni}_{2}O_{3}} + {3H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{Ni}} + {3H_{2}O}} & (143) \\{{3{Ni}_{2}O_{3}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{Ni}_{3}O_{4}} + {H_{2}O}} & (144) \\{{{Ni}_{2}O_{3}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NiO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (145) \\{{3{FeOOH}} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Fe}_{3}O_{4}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (146) \\{{3{NiOOH}} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Ni}_{3}O_{4}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (147) \\{{3{CoOOH}} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Co}_{3}O_{4}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (148) \\{{FeOOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{FeO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (149) \\{{NiOOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NiO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (150) \\{{CoOOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{CoO}} + {H_{2}O}} & (151) \\{{SnO} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Sn}} + {H_{2}O}} & (152)\end{matrix}$

The reaction mixture may comprise a source of an anion or an anion and asource of oxygen or oxygen such as a compound comprising oxygen whereinthe reaction to form H₂O catalyst comprises an anion-oxygen exchangereaction with optionally H₂ from a source reacting with the oxygen toform H₂O. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{NaOH}} + H_{2} + {S\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Na}_{2}S} + {2H_{2}O}} & (153) \\{{2{NaOH}} + H_{2} + {{Te}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Na}_{2}{Te}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (154) \\{{2{NaOH}} + H_{2} + {{Se}\mspace{11mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Na}_{2}{Se}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (155) \\{{LiOH} + {{NH}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiNH}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (156)\end{matrix}$

In another embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an exchangereaction between chalcogenides such as one between reactants comprisingO and S. An exemplary chalcogenide reactant such as tetrahedral ammoniumtetrathiomolybdate contains the ([MoS₄]²⁻) anion. An exemplary reactionto form nascent H₂O catalyst and optionally nascent H comprises thereaction of molybdate [MoO₄]²⁻ with hydrogen sulfide in the presence ofammonia:

$\begin{matrix}{{\left\lbrack {NH}_{4} \right\rbrack_{2}\left\lbrack {MoO}_{4} \right\rbrack} + {4H_{2}S\mspace{14mu}{{{to}\mspace{14mu}\left\lbrack {NH}_{4} \right\rbrack}_{2}\left\lbrack {MoS}_{4} \right\rbrack}} + {4H_{2}O}} & (157)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen, acompound comprising oxygen, and at least one element capable of formingan alloy with at least one other element of the reaction mixture. Thereaction to form H₂O catalyst may comprise an exchange reaction ofoxygen of the compound comprising oxygen and an element capable offorming an alloy with the cation of the oxygen compound wherein theoxygen reacts with hydrogen from the source to form H₂O. Exemplaryreactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {{Pd}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NaPb}} + {H_{2}O}} & (158) \\{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {{Bi}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NaBi}} + {H_{2}O}} & (159) \\{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {2{Cd}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Cd}_{2}{Na}} + {H_{2}O}} & (160) \\{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {4{Ga}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Ga}_{4}{Na}} + {H_{2}O}} & (161) \\{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {{Sn}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NaSn}} + {H_{2}O}} & (162) \\{{NaAlH}_{4} + {{Al}({OH})}_{3} + {5{Ni}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{NaAlO}_{2}} + {{Ni}_{5}{Al}} + {H_{2}O} + {5\text{/}2H_{2}}} & (163)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a compound comprisingoxygen such as an oxyhydroxide and a reductant such as a metal thatforms an oxide. The reaction to form H₂O catalyst may comprise thereaction of an oxyhydroxide with a metal to from a metal oxide and H₂O.Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{MnOOH}} + {{Sn}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{MnO}} + {SnO} + {H_{2}O}} & (164) \\{{4{MnOOH}} + {{Sn}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 4{MnO}} + {SnO}_{2} + {2H_{2}O}} & (165) \\{{2{MnOOH}} + {{Zn}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{MnO}} + {ZnO} + {H_{2}O}} & (166)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a compound comprisingoxygen such as a hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, and at least one othercompound comprising a different anion such as halide or another element.The reaction to form H₂O catalyst may comprise the reaction of thehydroxide with the other compound or element wherein the anion orelement is exchanged with hydroxide to from another compound of theanion or element, and H₂O is formed with the reaction of hydroxide withH₂. The anion may comprise halide. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{NaOH}} + {NiCl}_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NaCl}} + {2H_{2}O} + {Ni}} & (167) \\{{2{NaOH}} + I_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NaI}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (168) \\{{2{NaOH}} + {XeF}_{2} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NaF}} + {2H_{2}O} + {Xe}} & (169) \\{{{{Bi}X}_{3}\left( {X = {halide}} \right)} + {4{{Bi}({OH})}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 3{{BiO}X}} + {{Bi}_{2}O_{3}} + {6H_{2}O}} & (170)\end{matrix}$

The hydroxide and halide compounds may be selected such that thereaction to form H₂O and another halide is thermally reversible. In anembodiment, the general exchange reaction is

$\begin{matrix}{{{NaOH} + {1\text{/}2H_{2}} + {1\text{/}yM_{x}{Cl}_{y}}} = {{NaCl} + {6H_{2}O} + {x\text{/}yM}}} & (171)\end{matrix}$

wherein exemplary compounds M_(x)Cl_(y) are AlCl₃, BeCl₂, HfCl₄, KAgCl₂,MnCl₂, NaAlCl₄, ScCl₃, TiCl₂, TiCl₃, UCl₃, UCl₄, ZrCl₄, EuCl₃, GdCl₃,MgCl₂, NdCl₃, and YCl₃. At an elevated temperature the reaction of Eq.(171) such as in the range of about 100° C. to 2000° C. has at least oneof an enthalpy and free energy of about 0 kJ and is reversible. Thereversible temperature is calculated from the correspondingthermodynamic parameters of each reaction. Representative aretemperature ranges are NaCl—ScCl₃ at about 800K-900K, NaCl—TiCl₂ atabout 300K-400K, NaCl—UCl₃ at about 600K-800K, NaCl—UCl₄ at about250K-300K, NaCl—ZrCl₄ at about 250K-300K, NaCl—MgCl₂ at about900K-1300K, NaCl—EuCl₃ at about 900K-1000K, NaCl—NdCl₃ at about >1000K,and NaCl—YCl₃ at about >1000K.

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises an oxide such as ametal oxide such a alkali, alkaline earth, transition, inner transition,and rare earth metal oxides and those of other metals and metalloidssuch as those of Al, Ga, In, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb, Bi, Se, and Te, aperoxide such as M₂O₂ where M is an alkali metal such as Li₂O₂, Na₂O₂,and K₂O₂, and a superoxide such as MO₂ where M is an alkali metal suchas NaO₂, KO₂, RbO₂, and CsO₂, and alkaline earth metal superoxides, anda source of hydrogen. The ionic peroxides may further comprise those ofCa, Sr, or Ba. The reaction to form H₂O catalyst may comprise thehydrogen reduction of the oxide, peroxide, or superoxide to form H₂O.Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{{Na}_{2}O} + {2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{NaH}} + {H_{2}O}} & (172) \\{{{Li}_{2}O_{2}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Li}_{2}O} + {H_{2}O}} & (173) \\{{KO}_{2} + {3\text{/}2H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{KOH}} + {H_{2}O}} & (174)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogensuch as at least one of H₂, a hydride such as at least one of an alkali,alkaline earth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metalhydride and those of the present disclosure and a source of hydrogen orother compound comprising combustible hydrogen such as a metal amide,and a source of oxygen such as O₂. The reaction to form H₂O catalyst maycomprise the oxidation of H₂, a hydride, or hydrogen compound such asmetal amide to form H₂O. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{2{NaH}} + {O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{Na}_{2}O} + {H_{2}O}} & (175) \\{H_{2} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O}} & (176) \\{{LiNH}_{2} + {2O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{LiNO}_{3}} + {H_{2}O}} & (177) \\{{2{LiNH}_{2}} + {3\text{/}2O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2{LiOH}} + {H_{2}O} + N_{2}} & (178)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogenand a source of oxygen. The reaction to form H₂O catalyst may comprisethe decomposition of at least one of source of hydrogen and the sourceof oxygen to form H₂O. Exemplary reactions are

$\begin{matrix}{{{NH}_{4}{NO}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} N_{2}O} + {2H_{2}O}} & (179) \\{{{NH}_{4}{NO}_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} N_{2}} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {2H_{2}O}} & (180) \\{{H_{2}O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} & (181) \\{{H_{2}O_{2}} + {H_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} 2H_{2}O}} & (182)\end{matrix}$

The reaction mixtures disclosed herein this Chemical Reactor sectionfurther comprise a source of hydrogen to form hydrinos. The source maybe a source of atomic hydrogen such as a hydrogen dissociator and H₂ gasor a metal hydride such as the dissociators and metal hydrides of thepresent disclosure. The source of hydrogen to provide atomic hydrogenmay be a compound comprising hydrogen such as a hydroxide oroxyhydroxide. The H that reacts to form hydrinos may be nascent H formedby reaction of one or more reactants wherein at least one comprises asource of hydrogen such as the reaction of a hydroxide and an oxide. Thereaction may also form H₂O catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide maycomprise the same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOHcould dehydrate to provide H₂O catalyst and also provide nascent H for ahydrino reaction during dehydration:

$\begin{matrix}{{4{FeOOH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {2{FeO}} + O_{2} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}}} & (183)\end{matrix}$

wherein nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to hydrino. Otherexemplary reactions are those of a hydroxide and an oxyhydroxide or anoxide such as NaOH+FeOOH or Fe₂O₃ to form an alkali metal oxide such asNaFeO₂+H₂O wherein nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinowherein H₂O serves as the catalyst. The oxide and hydroxide may comprisethe same compound. For example, an oxyhydroxide such as FeOOH coulddehydrate to provide H₂O catalyst and also provide nascent H for ahydrino reaction during dehydration:

$\begin{matrix}{{4{FeOOH}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} H_{2}O} + {{Fe}_{2}O_{3}} + {2{FeO}} + O_{2} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}}} & (184)\end{matrix}$

wherein nascent H formed during the reaction reacts to hydrino. Otherexemplary reactions are those of a hydroxide and an oxyhydroxide or anoxide such as NaOH+FeOOH or Fe₂O₃ to form an alkali metal oxide such asNaFeO₂+H₂O wherein nascent H formed during the reaction may form hydrinowherein H₂O serves as the catalyst. Hydroxide ion is both reduced andoxidized in forming H₂O and oxide ion. Oxide ion may react with H₂O toform OH⁻. The same pathway may be obtained with a hydroxide-halideexchange reaction such as the following

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{2{M({OH})}_{2}} + {2M^{\prime}X_{2}}}\rightarrow{{H_{2}O} + {2{MX}_{2}} + {2M^{\prime}O} + {1\text{/}2O_{2}} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}}} \right. & (185)\end{matrix}$

wherein exemplary M and M′ metals are alkaline earth and transitionmetals, respectively, such as Cu(OH)₂+FeBr₂, Cu(OH)₂+CuBr₂, orCo(OH)₂+CuBr₂. In an embodiment, the solid fuel may comprise a metalhydroxide and a metal halide wherein at least one metal is Fe. At leastone of H₂O and H₂ may be added to regenerate the reactants. In anembodiment, M and M′ may be selected from the group of alkali, alkalineearth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metals, Al, Ga, In,Si, Ge, Sn, Pb, Group 13, 14, 15, and 16 elements, and other cations ofhydroxides or halides such as those of the present disclosure. Anexemplary reaction to form at least one of HOH catalyst, nascent H, andhydrino is

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{4{M{OH}}} + {4M^{\prime}X}}\rightarrow{{H_{2}O} + {2M_{2}^{\prime}O} + {M_{2}O} + {2{MX}} + X_{2} + {2{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}}} \right. & (186)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture comprises at least one of ahydroxide and a halide compound such as those of the present disclosure.In an embodiment, the halide may serve to facilitate at least one of theformation and maintenance of at least one of nascent HOH catalyst and H.In an embodiment, the mixture may serve to lower the melting point ofthe reaction mixture.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of Mg(OH)₂+CuBr₂.The product CuBr may be sublimed to form a CuBr condensation productthat is separated from the nonvolatile MgO. Br₂ may be trapped with acold trap. CuBr may be reacted with Br₂ to form CuBr₂, and MgO may bereacted with H₂O to form Mg(OH)₂. Mg(OH)₂ may be combined with CuBr₂ toform the regenerated solid fuel.

An acid-base reaction is another approach to H₂O catalyst. Thus, thethermal chemical reaction is similar to the electrochemical reaction toform hydrinos. Exemplary halides and hydroxides mixtures are those ofBi, Cd, Cu, Co, Mo, and Cd and mixtures of hydroxides and halides ofmetals having low water reactivity of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi,Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl,Sn, W, and Zn. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture further comprisesH₂O that may serves as a source of at least one of H and catalyst suchas nascent H₂O. The water may be in the form of a hydrate thatdecomposes or otherwise reacts during the reaction.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a reaction mixture of H₂O andan inorganic compound that forms nascent H and nascent H₂O. Theinorganic compound may comprise a halide such as a metal halide thatreacts with the H₂O. The reaction product may be at least one of ahydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide, and hydrate.Other products may comprise anions comprising oxygen and halogen such asXO⁻, XO₂ ⁻, XO₃ ⁻, and XO₄ ⁻ (X=halogen). The product may also be atleast one of a reduced cation and a halogen gas. The halide may be ametal halide such as one of an alkaline, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition, and rare earth metal, and Al, Ga, In, Sn, Pb, S, Te,Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B, and other elements that formhalides. The metal or element may additionally be one that forms atleast one of a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, oxyhalide, hydroxyhalide,hydrate, and one that forms a compound having an anion comprising oxygenand halogen such as XO⁻, XO₂ ⁻, XO₃ ⁻, and XO₄ ⁻ (X=halogen). Suitableexemplary metals and elements are at least one of an alkaline, alkalineearth, transition, inner transition, and rare earth metal, and Al, Ga,In, Sn, Pb, S, Te, Se, N, P, As, Sb, Bi, C, Si, Ge, and B. An exemplaryreaction is

$\begin{matrix}{{5MX_{2}} + {7H_{2}O\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu}{{MX}{OH}}} + {M({OH})}_{2} + {MO} + {M_{2}O_{3}} + {11{H\left( {1\text{/}4} \right)}} + {9\text{/}2X_{2}}} & (187)\end{matrix}$

wherein M is a metal such as a transition metal such as Cu and X ishalogen such as Cl.

In an embodiment, H₂O serves as the catalyst that is maintained at lowconcentration to provide nascent H₂O. In an embodiment, the lowconcentration is achieved by dispersion of the H₂O molecules in anothermaterial such as a solid, liquid, or gas. The H₂O molecules may bediluted to the limit of isolated of nascent molecules. The material alsocomprises a source of H. The material may comprise an ionic compoundsuch as an alkali halide such as a potassium halide such as KCl or atransition metal halide such as CuBr₂. The low concentration to formnascent H may also be achieved dynamically wherein H₂O is formed by areaction. The product H₂O may be removed at a rate relative to the rateof formation that results in a steady state low concentration to provideat least one of nascent H and nascent HOH. The reaction to form H₂O maycomprise dehydration, combustion, acid-base reactions and others such asthose of the present disclosure. The H₂O may be removed by means such asevaporation and condensation. Exemplary reactants are FeOOH to form ironoxide and H₂O wherein nascent H is also formed with the further reactionto from hydrinos. Other exemplary reaction mixtures are Fe₂O₃+at leastone of NaOH and H₂, and FeOOH+at least one of NaOH and H₂. The reactionmixture may be maintained at an elevated temperature such as in therange of about 100° C. to 600° C. H₂O product may be removed bycondensation of steam in a cold spot of the reactor such as a gas linemaintained below 100° C. In another embodiment, a material comprisingH₂O as an inclusion or part of a mixture or a compound such as H₂Odispersed or absorbed in a lattice such as that of an ionic compoundsuch as an alkali halide such as a potassium halide such as KCl may beincident with the bombardment of energetic particles. The particles maycomprise at least one of photons, ions, and electrons. The particles maycomprise a beam such as an electron beam. The bombardment may provide atleast one of H₂O catalyst, H, and activation of the reaction to formhydrinos. In embodiments of the SF-CIHT cell, the H₂O content may behigh. The H₂O may be ignited to form hydrinos at a high rate by a highcurrent.

The reaction mixture may further comprise a support such as anelectrically conductive, high surface area support. Suitable exemplarysupports are those of the present disclosure such as a metal powder suchas Ni or R—Ni, metal screen such as Ni, Ni celmet, Ni mesh, carbon,carbides such as TiC and WC, and borides. The support may comprise adissociator such as Pd/C or Pd/C. The reactants may be in any desiredmolar ratio. In an embodiment, the stoichiometry is such to favorreaction completion to form H₂O catalyst and to provide H to formhydrinos. The reaction temperature may be in any desired range such asin the range of about ambient to 1500° C. The pressure range may be anydesired such as in the range of about 0.01 Torr to 500 atm. Thereactions are at least one of regenerative and reversible by the methodsdisclosed herein and in Mills Prior Applications such as HydrogenCatalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008; HeterogeneousHydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul. 29, 2009;Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, PCT filedMar. 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System,PCT/US11/28889, filed PCT Mar. 17, 2011; H₂O-Based ElectrochemicalHydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012, andCIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013 hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety. Reactions that form H₂O maybe reversible by changing the reaction conditions such as temperatureand pressure to allow the reverse reaction that consumes H₂O to occur asknown by those skilled in the art. For example, the H₂O pressure may beincreased in the backward reaction to reform the reactants from theproducts by rehydration. In other cases, the hydrogen-reduced productmay be regenerated by oxidation such as by reaction with at least one ofoxygen and H₂O. In an embodiment, a reverse reaction product may beremoved from the reaction such that the reverse or regeneration reactionproceeds. The reverse reaction may become favorable even in the absenceof being favorable based on equilibrium thermodynamics by removing atleast one reverse reaction product. In an exemplary embodiment, theregenerated reactant (reverse or regeneration reaction product)comprises a hydroxide such as an alkali hydroxide. The hydroxide may beremoved by methods such as solvation or sublimation. In the latter case,alkali hydroxide sublime unchanged at a temperature in the range ofabout 350° C. to 400° C. The reactions may be maintained in the powerplants systems of Mills Prior Applications. Thermal energy from a cellproducing power may provide heat to at least one other cell undergoingregeneration as disclosed previously. Alternatively, the equilibrium ofthe reactions to form H₂O catalyst and the reverse regeneration reactioncan be shifted by changing the temperature of the water wall of thesystem design having a temperature gradient due to coolant at selectedregion of the cell as previously disclosed.

In an embodiment, the halide and oxide may undergo an exchange reaction.The products of the exchange reaction may be separated from each other.The exchange reaction may be performed by heating the product mixture.The separation may be by sublimation that may be driven by at least oneof heating and applying a vacuum. In an exemplary embodiment, CaBr₂ andCuO may undergo an exchange reaction due to heating to a hightemperature such as in the range of about 700° C. to 900° C. to formCuBr₂ and CaO. Any other suitable temperature range may be used such asin the range of about 100° C. to 2000° C. The CuBr₂ may be separated andcollected by sublimation that may be achieved by applying heat and lowpressure. The CuBr₂ may form a separate band. The CaO may be reactedwith H₂O to form Ca(OH)₂.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises asource of singlet oxygen. An exemplary reaction to generate singletoxygen is

$\begin{matrix}{{NaOCl} + {H_{2}O_{2}\mspace{14mu}{to}\mspace{14mu} O_{2}} + {NaCl} + {H_{2}O}} & (188)\end{matrix}$

In another embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises asource of or reagents of the Fenton reaction such as H₂O₂.

In an embodiment, lower energy hydrogen species and compounds aresynthesized using a catalyst comprising at least one of H and O such asH₂O. The reaction mixture to synthesize the exemplary lower energyhydrogen compound MHX wherein M is alkali and may be another metal suchas alkaline earth wherein the compound has the correspondingstoichiometry, H is hydrino such as hydrino hydride, and X is an anionsuch as halide, comprises a source of M and X such as an alkali halidesuch as KCl, and metal reductant such as an alkali metal, a hydrogendissociator such as Ni such as Ni screen or R—Ni and optionally asupport such as carbon, a source of hydrogen such as at least one of ametal hydride such as MH that may substitute for M and H₂ gas, and asource of oxygen such as a metal oxide or a compound comprising oxygen.Suitable exemplary metal oxides are Fe₂O₃, Cr₂O₃, and NiO. The reactiontemperature may be maintained in the range of about 200° C. to 1500° C.or about 400° C. to 800° C. The reactants may be in any desired ratios.The reaction mixture to form KHCl may comprise K, Ni screen, KCl,hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe₂O₃, Cr₂O₃, and NiO. Exemplaryweights and conditions are 1.6 g K, 20 g KCl, 40 g Ni screen, equalmoles of oxygen as K from the metal oxides such as 1.5 g Fe₂O₃ and 1.5 gNiO, 1 atm H₂, and a reaction temperature of about 550-600° C. Thereaction forms H₂O catalyst by reaction of H with O from the metal oxideand H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrino hydride ionsthat form the product KHCl. The reaction mixture to form KHI maycomprise K, R—Ni, KI, hydrogen gas, and at least one of Fe₂O₃, Cr₂O₃,and NiO. Exemplary weights and conditions are 1 g K, 20 g KI, 15 g R—Ni2800, equal moles of oxygen as K from the metal oxides such as 1 g Fe₂O₃and 1 g NiO, 1 atm H₂, and a reaction temperature of about 450-500° C.The reaction forms H₂O catalyst by reaction of H with O from the metaloxide and H reacts with the catalyst to form hydrinos and hydrinohydride ions that form the product KHI. In an embodiment, the product ofat least one of the CIHT cell, SF-CIHT cell, solid fuel, or chemicalcell is H₂(1/4) that causes an upfield H NMR matrix shift. In anembodiment, the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydrino atom ormolecule in a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOHor KOH causes the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protonssuch as those of NaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shiftmay cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about −0.1 to −5 ppmrelative to TMS.

In an embodiment, the regeneration reaction of a hydroxide and halidecompound mixture such as Cu(OH)₂+CuBr₂ may by addition of at least oneH₂ and H₂O. Products such as halides and oxides may be separated bysublimation of the halide. In an embodiment, H₂O may be added to thereaction mixture under heating conditions to cause the hydroxide andhalide such as CuBr₂ and Cu(OH)₂ to form from the reaction products. Inan embodiment, the regeneration may be achieved by the step of thermalcycling. In an embodiment, the halide such as CuBr₂ is H₂O solublewhereas the hydroxide such as Cu(OH)₂ is insoluble. The regeneratedcompounds may be separated by filtering or precipitation. The chemicalsmay be dried with wherein the thermal energy may be from the reaction.Heat may be recuperated from the driven off water vapor. Therecuperation may be by a heat exchanger or by using the steam directlyfor heating or to generate electricity using a turbine and generator forexample. In an embodiment, the regeneration of Cu(OH)₂ from CuO isachieved by using a H₂O splitting catalyst. Suitable catalysts are noblemetals on a support such as Pt/Al₂O₃, and CuAlO₂ formed by sintering CuOand Al₂O₃, cobalt-phosphate, cobalt borate, cobalt methyl borate, nickelborate, RuO₂, LaMnO₃, SrTiO₃, TiO₂, and WO₃. An exemplary method to forman H₂O-splitting catalyst is the controlled electrolysis of Co²⁺ andNi²⁺ solution in about 0.1 M potassium phosphate borate electrolyte, pH9.2, at a potential of 0.92 and 1.15 V (vs., the normal hydrogenelectrode), respectively. Exemplary, thermally reversible solid fuelcycles are

$\begin{matrix}\left. {{T\; 100\mspace{14mu} 2{CuBr}_{2}} + {C{a\left( {OH} \right)}_{2}}}\rightarrow{{2{CuO}} + {2{CaBr}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} \right. & (189) \\\left. {{T\; 730\mspace{14mu}{CaBr}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O}}\rightarrow{{C{a\left( {OH} \right)}_{2}} + {2{HBr}}} \right. & (190) \\\left. {{T\; 100\mspace{14mu}{CuO}} + {2{HBr}}}\rightarrow{{CuBr}_{2} + {H_{2}O}} \right. & (191) \\\left. {{T\; 100\mspace{14mu} 2{CuBr}_{2}} + {C{u\left( {OH} \right)}_{2}}}\rightarrow{{2{CuO}} + {2{CaBr}_{2}} + {H_{2}O}} \right. & (192) \\\left. {{T\; 730\mspace{14mu}{CuBr}_{2}} + {2H_{2}O}}\rightarrow{{{Cu}({OH})}_{2} + {2{HBr}}} \right. & (193) \\\left. {{T\; 100\mspace{14mu}{CuO}} + {2{HBr}}}\rightarrow{{CuBr}_{2} + {H_{2}O}} \right. & (194)\end{matrix}$

In an embodiment, the reaction mixture of a solid fuel having at leastone of H₂ as a reactant and H₂O as a product and one or more of H₂ orH₂O as at least one of a reactant and a product is selected such thatthe maximum theoretical free energy of the any conventional reaction isabout zero within the range of −500 to +500 kJ/mole of the limitingreagent or preferably within the range of −100 to +100 kJ/mole of thelimiting reagent. A mixture of reactants and products may be maintainedat one or more of about the optimum temperature at which the free energyis about zero and about the optimum temperature at which the reaction isreversible to obtain regeneration or steady power for at least aduration longer than reaction time in the absence of maintaining themixture and temperature. The temperature may be within a range of about+/−500° C. or about +/−100° C. of the optimum. Exemplary mixtures andreaction temperatures are a stoichiometric mixture of Fe, Fe₂O₃, H₂ andH₂O at 800 K and a stoichiometric Sn, SnO, H₂ and H₂O at 800 K.

In an embodiment, wherein at least one of an alkali metal M such as K orLi, and nH (n=integer), OH, O, 2O, O₂, and H₂O serve as the catalyst,the source of H is at least one of a metal hydride such as MH and thereaction of at least one of a metal M and a metal hydride MH with asource of H to form H. One product may be an oxidized M such as an oxideor hydroxide. The reaction to create at least one of atomic hydrogen andcatalyst may be an electron transfer reaction or an oxidation-reductionreaction. The reaction mixture may further comprise at least one of H₂,a H₂ dissociator such as those of the present disclosure such as Niscreen or R—Ni and an electrically conductive support such as thesedissociators and others as well as supports of the present disclosuresuch as carbon, and carbide, a boride, and a carbonitride. An exemplaryoxidation reaction of M or MH is

$\begin{matrix}{{4{MH}} + {{Fe}_{2}O_{3}\mspace{14mu}{to}} + {H_{2}O} + {H\left( {1\text{/}p} \right)} + {M_{2}O} + {M{OH}} + {2{Fe}} + M} & (195)\end{matrix}$

wherein at least one of H₂O and M may serve as the catalyst to formH(1/p). The reaction mixture may further comprise a getter for hydrinosuch as a compound such as a salt such as a halide salt such as analkali halide salt such as KCl or KI. The product may be MHX (M=metalsuch as an alkali; X is counter ion such as halide; H is hydrinospecies). Other hydrino catalysts may substitute for M such as those ofthe present disclosure such as those of TABLE 1.

In an embodiment, the source of oxygen is a compound that has a heat offormation that is similar to that of water such that the exchange ofoxygen between the reduced product of the oxygen source compound andhydrogen occurs with minimum energy release. Suitable exemplary oxygensource compounds are CdO, CuO, ZnO, SO₂, SeO₂, and TeO₂. Others such asmetal oxides may also be anhydrides of acids or bases that may undergodehydration reactions as the source of H₂O catalyst are MnO_(x),AlO_(x), and SiO_(x). In an embodiment, an oxide layer oxygen source maycover a source of hydrogen such as a metal hydride such as palladiumhydride. The reaction to form H₂O catalyst and atomic H that furtherreact to form hydrino may be initiated by heating the oxide coatedhydrogen source such as metal oxide coated palladium hydride. Thepalladium hydride may be coated on the opposite side as that of theoxygen source by a hydrogen impermeable layer such as a layer of goldfilm to cause the released hydrogen to selectively migrate to the sourceof oxygen such the oxide layer such as a metal oxide. In an embodiment,the reaction to form the hydrino catalyst and the regeneration reactioncomprise an oxygen exchange between the oxygen source compound andhydrogen and between water and the reduced oxygen source compound,respectively. Suitable reduced oxygen sources are Cd, Cu, Zn, S, Se, andTe. In an embodiment, the oxygen exchange reaction may comprise thoseused to form hydrogen gas thermally. Exemplary thermal methods are theiron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinczinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybridsulfur cycle and others known to those skilled in the art. In anembodiment, the reaction to form hydrino catalyst and the regenerationreaction such as an oxygen exchange reaction occurs simultaneously inthe same reaction vessel. The conditions such a temperature and pressuremay be controlled to achieve the simultaneity of reaction. Alternately,the products may be removed and regenerated in at least one otherseparate vessel that may occur under conditions different than those ofthe power forming reaction as given in the present disclosure and MillsPrior Applications.

In an embodiment, the NH₂ group of an amide such as LiNH₂ serves as thecatalyst wherein the potential energy is about 81.6 eV corresponding tom=3 in Eq. (5). Similarly to the reversible H₂O elimination or additionreaction of between acid or base to the anhydride and vice versa, thereversible reaction between the amide and imide or nitride results inthe formation of the NH₂ catalyst that further reacts with atomic H toform hydrinos. The reversible reaction between amide, and at least oneof imide and nitride may also serve as a source of hydrogen such asatomic H.

In an embodiment, a hydrino species such as molecular hydrino or hydrinohydride ion is synthesized by the reaction of H and at least one of OHand H₂O catalyst. The hydrino species may be produced by at least two ofthe group of a metal such as an alkali, alkaline earth, transition,inner transition, and rare earth metal, Al, Ga, In, Ge, Sn, Pb, As, Sb,and Te, a metal hydride such as LaNi₅H₆ and others of the presentdisclosure, an aqueous hydroxide such as an alkaline hydroxide such asKOH at 0.1 M up to saturated concentration, a support such as carbon,Pt/C, steam carbon, carbon black, a carbide, a boride, or a nitrile, andoxygen. Suitable exemplary reaction mixtures to form hydrino speciessuch as molecular hydrino are (1) Co PtC KOH (sat) with and without O₂;(2) Zn or Sn+LaNi₅H₆+KOH (sat), (3) Co, Sn, Sb, or Zn+O₂+CB+KOH (sat),(4) Al CB KOH (sat), (5) Sn Ni-coated graphite KOH (sat) with andwithout O₂, (6) Sn+SC or CB+KOH (sat)+O₂, (7) Zn Pt/C KOH (sat) O₂, (8)Zn R—Ni KOH (sat) O₂, (9) Sn LaNi₅H₆ KOH (sat) O₂, (10) Sb LaNi₅H₆ KOH(sat) O₂, (11) Co, Sn, Zn, Pb, or Sb+KOH (Sat aq)+K₂CO₃+CB-SA, and (12)LiNH₂ LiBr and LiH or Li and H₂ or a source thereof and optionally ahydrogen dissociator such as Ni or R—Ni. Additional reaction mixturescomprise a molten hydroxide, a source of hydrogen, a source of oxygen,and a hydrogen dissociator. Suitable exemplary reaction mixtures to formhydrino species such as molecular hydrino are (1) Ni(H₂) LiOH—LiBr airor O₂, (2) Ni(H₂) NaOH—NaBr air or O₂, and (3) Ni(H₂) KOH—NaBr air orO₂.

In an embodiment, the product of at least one of the chemical, SF-CIHT,and CIHT cell reactions to form hydrinos is a compound comprisinghydrino or lower-energy hydrogen species such as H₂(1/p) complexed withan inorganic compound. The compound may comprise an oxyanion compoundsuch as an alkali or alkaline earth carbonate or hydroxide or other suchcompounds of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, the productcomprises at least one of M₂CO₃.H₂(1/4) and MOH H₂(1/4) (M=alkali orother cation of the present disclosure) complex. The product may beidentified by ToF-SIMS as a series of ions in the positive spectrumcomprising M(M₂CO₃.H₂(1/4))_(n) ⁺) and M(KOH.H₂(1/4))_(n) ⁺,respectively, wherein n is an integer and an integer and integer p>1 maybe substituted for 4. In an embodiment, a compound comprising siliconand oxygen such as SiO₂ or quartz may serve as a getter for H₂(1/4). Thegetter for H₂(1/4) may comprise a transition metal, alkali metal,alkaline earth metal, inner transition metal, rare earth metal,combinations of metals, alloys such as a Mo alloy such as MoCu, andhydrogen storage materials such as those of the present disclosure.

The lower-energy hydrogen compounds synthesized by the methods of thepresent disclosure may have the formula MH, MH₂, or M₂H₂, wherein M isan alkali cation and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or anincreased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have theformula MH_(n) wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation and His an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased bindingenergy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX wherein M isan alkali cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as halogen atom, amolecule, or a singly negatively charged anion such as halogen anion,and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased bindingenergy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX wherein M isan alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and His an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased bindingenergy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MHX wherein M isan alkaline earth cation, X is a double negatively charged anion, and His an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have theformula M₂HX wherein M is an alkali cation, X is a singly negativelycharged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or anincreased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may have theformula MH_(n) wherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline cation and thehydrogen content H_(n) of the compound comprises at least one increasedbinding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formulaM₂H_(n) wherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation and thehydrogen content H_(n) of the compound comprises at least one increasedbinding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formulaM₂XH_(n) wherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is asingly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H_(n) of thecompound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogenspecies. The compound may have the formula M₂X₂H_(n) wherein n is 1 or2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively chargedanion, and the hydrogen content H_(n) of the compound comprises at leastone increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have theformula M₂X₃H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singlynegatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrideion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compound may havethe formula M₂XH_(n) wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation,X is a double negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H_(n)of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogenspecies. The compound may have the formula M₂XX′H wherein M is analkaline earth cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X′ is adouble negatively charged anion, and H is an increased binding energyhydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compoundmay have the formula MM′H_(n) wherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M isan alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation and the hydrogencontent H_(n) of the compound comprises at least one increased bindingenergy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM′XH_(n)wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkalimetal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion and the hydrogencontent H_(n) of the compound comprises at least one increased bindingenergy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM′XH whereinM is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation, X is adouble negatively charged anion and H is an increased binding energyhydride ion or an increased binding energy hydrogen atom. The compoundmay have the formula MM′XX′H wherein M is an alkaline earth cation, M′is an alkali metal cation, X and X′ are singly negatively charged anionand H is an increased binding energy hydride ion or an increased bindingenergy hydrogen atom. The compound may have the formula MXX′H_(n)wherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earthcation, X is a singly or double negatively charged anion, X′ is a metalor metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or arare earth element, and the hydrogen content H_(n) of the compoundcomprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thecompound may have the formula MH_(n) wherein n is an integer, M is acation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or arare earth element, and the hydrogen content H_(n) of the compoundcomprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thecompound may have the formula MXH_(n) wherein n is an integer, M is ancation such as an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, X is anothercation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or a rareearth element cation, and the hydrogen content H_(n) of the compoundcomprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thecompound may have the formula wherein m and n are each an integer andthe hydrogen content of the compound comprises at least one increasedbinding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formulawherein m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negatively chargedanion, and the hydrogen content of the compound comprises at least oneincreased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have theformula wherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of thecompound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogenspecies. The compound may have the formula wherein n is an integer andthe hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increasedbinding energy hydrogen species. The compound including an anion orcation may have the formula wherein m and n are each an integer, M andM′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doublenegatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compoundcomprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thecompound including an anion or cation may have the formula wherein m andn are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earthcation, X and X′ are a singly or double negatively charged anion, andthe hydrogen content of the compound comprises at least one increasedbinding energy hydrogen species. The anion may comprise one of those ofthe present disclosure. Suitable exemplary singly negatively chargedanions are halide ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, or nitrateion. Suitable exemplary double negatively charged anions are carbonateion, oxide, or sulfate ion.

In an embodiment, the increased binding energy hydrogen compound ormixture comprises at least one lower energy hydrogen species such as ahydrino atom, hydrino hydride ion, and dihydrino molecule embedded in alattice such as a crystalline lattice such as in a metallic or ioniclattice. In an embodiment, the lattice is non-reactive with the lowerenergy hydrogen species. The matrix may be aprotic such as in the caseof embedded hydrino hydride ions. The compound or mixture may compriseat least one of H(1/p), H₂(1/p), and H⁻(1/p) embedded in a salt latticesuch as an alkali or alkaline earth salt such as a halide. Exemplaryalkali halides are KCl and KI. The salt may be absent any H₂O in thecase of embedded H⁻(1/p). Other suitable salt lattices comprise those ofthe present disclosure. The lower energy hydrogen species may be formedby catalysis of hydrogen with an aprotic catalyst such as those of TABLE1.

The compounds of the present invention are preferably greater than 0.1atomic percent pure. More preferably, the compounds are greater than 1atomic percent pure. Even more preferably, the compounds are greaterthan 10 atomic percent pure. Most preferably, the compounds are greaterthan 50 atomic percent pure. In another embodiment, the compounds aregreater than 90 atomic percent pure. In another embodiment, thecompounds are greater than 95 atomic percent pure.

In another embodiment of the chemical reactor to form hydrinos, the cellto form hydrinos and release power such as thermal power comprises thecombustion chamber of an internal combustion engine, rocket engine, orgas turbine. The reaction mixture comprises a source of hydrogen and asource of oxygen to generate the catalyst and hydrinos. The source ofthe catalyst may be at least one of a species comprising hydrogen andone comprising oxygen. The species or a further reaction product may beat least one of species comprising at least one of O and H such as H₂,H, H⁺, O₂, O₃, O₃ ⁺, O₃ ⁻, O, O⁺, H₂O, H₃O⁺, OH, OH⁺, OH⁻, HOOH, OOH⁻,O⁻, O²⁻, O₂ ⁻, and O₂ ²⁻. The catalyst may comprise an oxygen orhydrogen species such as H₂O. In another embodiment, the catalystcomprises at least one of nH, nO (n=integer), O₂, OH, and H₂O catalyst.The source of hydrogen such as a source of hydrogen atoms may comprise ahydrogen-containing fuel such as H₂ gas or a hydrocarbon. Hydrogen atomsmay be produced by pyrolysis of a hydrocarbon during hydrocarboncombustion. The reaction mixture may further comprise a hydrogendissociator such as those of the present disclosure. H atoms may also beformed by the dissociation of hydrogen. The source of O may furthercomprise O₂ from air. The reactants may further comprise H₂O that mayserve as a source of at least one of H and O. In an embodiment, waterserves as a further source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen thatmay be supplied by pyrolysis of H₂O in the cell. The water can bedissociated into hydrogen atoms thermally or catalytically on a surface,such as the cylinder or piston head. The surface may comprise materialfor dissociating water to hydrogen and oxygen. The water dissociatingmaterial may comprise an element, compound, alloy, or mixture oftransition elements or inner transition elements, iron, platinum,palladium, zirconium, vanadium, nickel, titanium, Sc, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu,Zn, Y, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, La, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Au, Hg,Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Vb, Lu, Th, Pa, U,activated charcoal (carbon), or Cs intercalated carbon (graphite). The Han O may react to form the catalyst and H to form hydrinos. The sourceof hydrogen and oxygen may be drawn in through corresponding ports orintakes such as intake valves or manifolds. The products may beexhausted through exhaust ports or outlets. The flow may be controlledby controlling the inlet and outlet rates through the respective ports.

In an embodiment, hydrinos are formed by heating a source of catalystand a source of hydrogen such as a solid fuel of the present disclosure.The heating may be at least one of thermal heating and percussionheating. Experimentally, Raman spectroscopy confirms that hydrinos areformed by ball milling a solid fuel such as a mixture of a hydroxide anda halide such as a mixture comprising alkali metals such as Li. Forexample, an inverse Raman effect peak is observed from ball milledLiOH+LiI and LiOH+LiF at 2308 cm⁻¹. Thus, a suitable exemplary mixtureis LiOH+LiI or LiF. In an embodiment, at least one of thermal andpercussion heating is achieved by a rapid reaction. In this case, anadditional energetic reaction is provided by forming hydrinos.

In an embodiment, H₂(1/p) may serve as a MRI paramagnetic contrast agentsince the 1 quantum number is nonzero.

The nonzero 1 quantum number allowing the rotational selection rule ofthe magnitude of ΔJ=0, +1 is permissive of a H₂(1/p) molecular laser.

In an embodiment, since H₂(1/p) is paramagnetic, it has a higherliquefaction temperature than H2. Bulk hydrino gas may be collected bycryo-separation methods.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises arocket propellant. The high-current initiated ignition gives rise torapidly expanding plasma that may provide thrust. Another invention ofthe present disclosure is a thruster comprising a closed cell except fora nozzle to direct the expanding plasma to provide thrust. In anotherembodiment, a thruster comprises a magnetic bottle or other similarplasma confinement and directing magnetic field system known by thoseskilled in the art to cause the plasma to flow in a directed manner fromthe electrodes that provide the igniting high current. In anotherembodiment, the highly ionized plasma may be used in ion motors and ionthrusters known by those skilled in the art to provide thrust.

In an embodiment, the energetic plasma from the ignited solid fuel isused to process materials such as at least one of plasma etch, stabilizethe surface of silicon by doping or coating with a stable hydrogen layersuch as one comprising hydrino species, and convert graphitic carbon toat least one of diamond-like-carbon and diamond. The methods and systemaccording to the present disclosure to hydrino-species dope or coatsurfaces such as silicon to cause stabilization and to convert carbon todiamond materials are given in my previous publications R. L. Mills, J.Sankar, A. Voigt, J. He, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, “Role of Atomic HydrogenDensity and Energy in Low Power CVD Synthesis of Diamond Films,” ThinSolid Films, 478, (2005) 77-90, R. L. Mills, J. Sankar, A. Voigt, J. He,B. Dhandapani, “Spectroscopic Characterization of the Atomic HydrogenEnergies and Densities and Carbon Species During Helium-Hydrogen-MethanePlasma CVD Synthesis of Diamond Films,” Chemistry of Materials, Vol. 15,(2003), pp. 1313-1321, R. L. Mills, B. Dhandapani, J. He, “Highly StableAmorphous Silicon Hydride from a Helium Plasma Reaction,” MaterialsChemistry and Physics, 94/2-3, (2005), 298-307, R. L. Mills, B.Dhandapani, J. He, “Highly Stable Amorphous Silicon Hydride,” SolarEnergy Materials & Solar Cells, Vol. 80, (2003), pp. 1-20, and R. L.Mills, J. He, P. Ray, B. Dhandapani, X. Chen, “Synthesis andCharacterization of a Highly Stable Amorphous Silicon Hydride as theProduct of a Catalytic Helium-Hydrogen Plasma Reaction,” Int. J.Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 28, No. 12, (2003), pp. 1401-1424 which are hereinincorporated reference in their entirety.

In an embodiment, the energetic plasma from the ignited solid fuel isused to form an inverted population. In an embodiment, the solid fuelplasma components of the system shown in FIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B is atleast one of a pumping source of a laser and a lasing medium of a laser.Methods and systems to form an inverted population to achieve lasing aregiven in my previous publications R. L. Mills, P. Ray, R. M. Mayo, “ThePotential for a Hydrogen Water-Plasma Laser,” Applied Physics Letters,Vol. 82, No. 11, (2003), pp. 1679-1681 and R. L. Mills, P. Ray, R. M.Mayo, “CW HI Laser Based on a Stationary Inverted Lyman PopulationFormed from Incandescently Heated Hydrogen Gas with Certain Group ICatalysts,” IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, Vol. 31, No. 2, (2003),pp. 236-247 R. L. Mills, P. Ray, R. M. Mayo, “CW HI Laser Based on aStationary Inverted Lyman Population Formed from Incandescently HeatedHydrogen Gas with Certain Group I Catalysts,” IEEE Transactions onPlasma Science, Vol. 31, No. 2, (2003), pp. 236-247 which are hereinincorporated reference in its entirety.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material is reacted byheating. The reaction mixture may comprise a conductor and be reacted ona highly conductive surface such as one that does not oxidize during thereaction to become less conductive. Suitable surfaces such as those of areactor are noble metals such as Au and Pt.

VII. Solid Fuel Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell andPower Converter

In an embodiment, a power system that generates at least one of directelectrical energy and thermal energy comprises at least one vessel,reactants comprising: (a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalystcomprising nascent H₂O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen oratomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of a conductor and a conductivematrix, and at least one set of electrodes to confine the hydrinoreactants, a source of electrical power to deliver a short burst ofhigh-current electrical energy, a reloading system, at least one systemto regenerate the initial reactants from the reaction products, and atleast one direct plasma to electricity converter and at least onethermal to electric power converter. In a further embodiment, the vesselis capable of a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, aboveatmospheric, and below atmospheric. In an embodiment, the regenerationsystem can comprise at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, andelectrochemical system. In another embodiment, the at least one directplasma to electricity converter can comprise at least one of the groupof plasmadynamic power converter,

direct converter, magnetohydrodynamic power converter, magnetic mirrormagnetohydrodynamic power converter, charge drift converter, Post orVenetian Blind power converter, gyrotron, photon bunching microwavepower converter, and photoelectric converter. In a further embodiment,the at least one thermal to electricity converter can comprise at leastone of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine andgenerator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine-cycle engine, aBrayton-cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter,and a thermoelectric power converter.

In an embodiment, H₂O is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release ofenergy in the form of at least one of thermal, plasma, andelectromagnetic (light) power. (“Ignition” in the present disclosuredenotes a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos that may be manifestas a burst, pulse or other form of high power release.) H₂O may comprisethe fuel that may be ignited with the application a high current such asone in the range of about 2000 A to 100,000 A. This may be achieved bythe application of a high voltage such as 5,000 to 100,000 V to firstform highly conducive plasma such as an arc. Alternatively, a highcurrent may be passed through a compound or mixture comprising H₂Owherein the conductivity of the resulting fuel such as a solid fuel ishigh. (In the present disclosure a solid fuel or energetic material isused to denote a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst such as HOH andH that further reacts to form hydrinos. However, the reaction mixturemay comprise other physical states than solid. In embodiments, thereaction mixture may be at least one state of gaseous, liquid, solid,slurry, sol gel, solution, mixture, gaseous suspension, pneumatic flow,and other states known to those skilled in the art.) In an embodiment,the solid fuel having a very low resistance comprises a reaction mixturecomprising H₂O. The low resistance may be due to a conductor componentof the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistance of the solidfuel is at least one of in the range of about 10⁻⁹ ohm to 100 ohms, 10⁻⁸ohm to 10 ohms, 10⁻³ ohm to 1 ohm, 10⁻⁴ ohm to 10⁻¹ ohm, and 10⁻⁴ ohm to10⁻² ohm. In another embodiment, the fuel having a high resistancecomprises H₂O comprising a trace or minor mole percentage of an addedcompound or material. In the latter case, high current may be flowedthrough the fuel to achieve ignition by causing breakdown to form ahighly conducting state such as an arc or arc plasma.

In an embodiment, the reactants can comprise a source of H₂O and aconductive matrix to form at least one of the source of catalyst, thecatalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen. In afurther embodiment, the reactants comprising a source of H₂O cancomprise at least one of bulk H₂O, a state other than bulk H₂O, acompound or compounds that undergo at least one of react to form H₂O andrelease bound H₂O. Additionally, the bound H₂O can comprise a compoundthat interacts with H₂O wherein the H₂O is in a state of at least one ofabsorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration. Inembodiments, the reactants can comprise a conductor and one or morecompounds or materials that undergo at least one of release of bulk H₂O,absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration, andhave H₂O as a reaction product. In other embodiments, the at least oneof the source of nascent H₂O catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogencan comprise at least one of: (a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) atleast one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

In additional embodiments, the reactants to form at least one of thesource of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and theatomic hydrogen comprise at least one of H₂O and the source of H₂O; O₂,H₂O, HOOH, OOH⁻, peroxide ion, superoxide ion, hydride, H₂, a halide, anoxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, a compound that comprises oxygen, ahydrated compound, a hydrated compound selected from the group of atleast one of a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, acompound that comprises oxygen; and a conductive matrix. In certainembodiments, the oxyhydroxide can comprise at least one from the groupof TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH,CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH; the oxide can comprise at least one fromthe group of CuO, Cu₂O, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, FeO, Fe₂O₃, NiO, and Ni₂O₃;the hydroxide can comprise at least one from the group of Cu(OH)₂,Co(OH)₂, Co(OH)₃, Fe(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₃, and Ni(OH)₂; the compound thatcomprises oxygen can comprise at least one from the group of a sulfate,phosphate, nitrate, carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chromate,pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃,MXO₄ (M=metal such as alkali metal such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X═F, Br,Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesiumoxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄,ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO, Fe₂O₃, TaO₂,Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃, P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂,SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄,FeO, Fe₂O₃, NiO, Ni₂O₃, rare earth oxide, CeO₂, La₂O₃, an oxyhydroxide,TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH,CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the conductive matrix can compriseat least one from the group of a metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride,nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

In embodiments, the reactants can comprise a mixture of a metal, itsmetal oxide, and H₂O wherein the reaction of the metal with H₂O is notthermodynamically favorable. In other embodiments, the reactants cancomprise a mixture of a metal, a metal halide, and H₂O wherein thereaction of the metal with H₂O is not thermodynamically favorable. Inadditional embodiments, reactants can comprise a mixture of a transitionmetal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂O wherein the reaction ofthe metal with H₂O is not thermodynamically favorable. And in furtherembodiments, the reactants can comprise a mixture of a conductor, ahydroscopic material, and H₂O. In embodiments, the conductor cancomprise a metal powder or carbon powder wherein the reaction of themetal or carbon with H₂O is not thermodynamically favorable. Inembodiments, the hydroscopic material can comprise at least one of thegroup of lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zincchloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such asKMgCl₃.6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodiumhydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulosefibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel,methamphetamine, a fertilizer chemical, a salt, a desiccant, silica,activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, a molecularsieves, a zeolite, a deliquescent material, zinc chloride, calciumchloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and a deliquescent salt.In certain embodiments, the power system can comprise a mixture of aconductor, hydroscopic materials, and H₂O wherein the ranges of relativemolar amounts of (metal/conductor), (hydroscopic material), (H₂O) are atleast one of about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000);(0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100),(0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1),(0.5 to 1). In certain embodiments, the metal having a thermodynamicallyunfavorable reaction with H₂O can be at least one of the group of Cu,Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se,Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In additionalembodiments, the reactants can be regenerated by addition of H₂O.

In further embodiments, the reactants can comprise a mixture of a metal,its metal oxide, and H₂O wherein the metal oxide is capable of H₂reduction at a temperature less than 1000° C. In other embodiments, thereactants can comprise a mixture of an oxide that is not easily reducedwith H₂ and mild heat, a metal having an oxide capable of being reducedto the metal with H₂ at a temperature less than 1000° C., and H₂O. Inembodiments, the metal having an oxide capable of being reduced to themetal with H₂ at a temperature less than 1000° C. can be at least one ofthe group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd,Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, andIn. In embodiments, the metal oxide that is not easily reduced with H₂,and mild heat comprises at least one of alumina, an alkaline earthoxide, and a rare earth oxide.

In embodiments, the solid fuel can comprise carbon or activated carbonand H₂O wherein the mixture is regenerated by rehydration comprisingaddition of H₂O. In further embodiments, the reactants can comprise atleast one of a slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and a compound. Inembodiments, the current of the source of electrical power to deliver ashort burst of high-current electrical energy is sufficient enough tocause the hydrino reactants to undergo the reaction to form hydrinos ata very high rate. In embodiments, the source of electrical power todeliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises atleast one of the following: a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC,or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak ACcurrent density in the range of at least one of 100 A/cm² to 1,000,000A/cm², 1000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², and 2000 A/cm² to 50,000 A/cm²; thevoltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel or energeticmaterial wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times theresistance of the solid fuel or energetic material sample; the DC orpeak AC voltage may be in at least one range chosen from about 0.1 V to500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency may bein the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz,and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuelor energetic material sample is in at least one range chosen from about0.001milliohm to 100 Mohm, 0.1 ohm to 1 Mohm, and 10 ohm to 1 kohm, andthe conductivity of a suitable load per electrode area active to formhydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 10⁻¹⁰ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻¹ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and 1 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻².

In an embodiment, the solid fuel is conductive. In embodiments, theresistance of a portion, pellet, or aliquot of solid fuel is at leastone of in the range of about 10⁻⁹ ohm to 100 ohms, 10⁻⁸ ohm to 10 ohms,10⁻³ ohm to 1 ohm, 10⁻³ ohm to 10⁻¹ ohm, and 10⁻³ ohm to 10⁻² ohm. In anembodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application ordevelopment of a high current. The hydrino catalysis reaction such as anenergetic hydrino catalysis reaction may be initiated by a low-voltage,high-current flow through the conductive fuel. The energy release may bevery high, and shock wave may form. In an embodiment, the voltage isselected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current thatcauses ignition such as a high current in the range of at least one of100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The currentdensity may be in the range of at least one of 100 A/cm² to 1,000,000A/cm², 1000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², and 2000 A/cm² to 50,000 A/cm² offuel that may comprise a pellet such as a pressed pellet. The DC or peakAC voltage may be in at least one range chosen from about 0.1 V to 100kV V, 0.1 V to 1 k V, 0.1 V to 100 V, and 0.1 V to 15 V. The ACfrequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz,10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in atleast one range chosen from about 10⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10⁻⁵ s to 1 s, 10⁻⁴ sto 0.1 s, and 10⁻³ s to 0.01 s. In another embodiment, at least one of ahigh magnetic field or flux, ϕ, or a high velocity of the magnetic fieldchange ignites the hydrino reaction. The magnetic flux may be in therange of about 10 G to 10 T, 100 G to 5 T, or 1 kG to 1 T. dϕ/dt may bethat corresponding to a flux of 10 G to 10 T, 100 G to 5 T, or 1 kG to 1T alternating at a frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1000 Hz, or 10 Hz to 100 Hz.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may comprise asource of H₂O or H₂O. The H₂O mole % content may be in the range of atleast one of about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%,0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%,0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%. In an embodiment, the hydrinoreaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a highcurrent. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC,DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least oneof 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC orpeak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of 100 A/cm²to 1,000,000 A/cm², 1000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², and 2000 A/cm² to50,000 A/cm². In an embodiment, the voltage is determined by theconductivity of the solid fuel or energetic material. The resistance ofthe solid fuel or energetic material sample is in at least one rangechosen from about 0.001milliohm to 100 Mohm, 0.1 ohm to 1 Mohm, and 10ohm to 1 kohm. The conductivity of a suitable load per electrode areaactive to form hydrinos is in at least one range chosen from about 10⁻¹⁰ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁴ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻²ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻¹ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and 1ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻². In an embodiment, the voltage is given bythe desired current times the resistance of the solid fuel or energeticmaterial sample. In the exemplary case that the resistance is of theorder of 1 mohm, the voltage is low such as <10 V. In an exemplary caseof essentially pure H₂O wherein the resistance is essentially infinite,the applied voltage to achieve a high current for ignition is high, suchas above the breakdown voltage of the H₂O such as about 5 kV or higher.In embodiments, the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one rangechosen from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV.The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. In an embodiment, a DCvoltage is discharged to create plasma comprising ionized H₂O whereinthe current is underdamped and oscillates as it decays.

In an embodiment, the high-current pulse is achieved with the dischargeof capacitors such as supercapacitors that may be connected in at leastone of series and parallel to achieve the desired voltage and currentwherein the current may be DC or conditioned with circuit elements sucha transformer such as a low voltage transformer known to those skilledin the art. The capacitor may be charged by an electrical source such asgrid power, a generator, a fuel cell, or a battery. In an embodiment, abattery supplies the current. In an embodiment, a suitable frequency,voltage, and current waveform may be achieved by power conditioning theoutput of the capacitors or battery. In an embodiment, an exemplarycircuit to achieve a current pulse of 500 A at 900 V is given in V. V.Nesterov, A. R. Donaldson, “High Current High Accuracy IGBT PulseGenerator”, 1996 IEEE, pp. 1251-1253,https://accelconf.web.cern.ch/AccelConf/p95/ARTICLES/WAA/WAA11.PDF, andone to achieve 25 kA is given in P. Pribyl, W. Gekelman, “24 kA solidstate switch for plasma discharge experiments,” Review of ScientificInstruments, Vol. 75, No. 3, March, 2004, pp. 669-673 wherein both areincorporated by reference in their entirely wherein a voltage dividermay increase the current and decrease the voltage.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a conductor orconductive matrix or support such as a metal, carbon, or carbide, andH₂O or a source of H₂O such as a compound or compounds that can react toform H₂O or that can release bound H₂O such as those of the presentdisclosure. The solid fuel may comprise H₂O, a compound or material thatinteracts with the H₂O, and a conductor. The H₂O may be present in astate other than bulk H₂O such as absorbed or bound H₂O such asphysisorbed H₂O or waters of hydration. Alternatively, the H₂O may bepresent as bulk H₂O in a mixture that is highly conductive or madehighly conductive by the application of a suitable voltage. The solidfuel may comprise H₂O and a material or compound such as a metal powderor carbon that provides high conductivity and a material or compoundsuch as an oxide such as a metal oxide to facilitate forming H andpossibility HOH catalyst. A exemplary solid fuel may comprise R—Ni aloneand with additives such as those of transition metals and Al whereinR—Ni releases H and HOH by the decomposition of hydrated Al₂O₃ andAl(OH)₃. A suitable exemplary solid fuel comprises at least oneoxyhydroxide such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH,AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH and a conducivematrix such as at least one of a metal powder and carbon powder, andoptionally H₂O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one hydroxide suchas a transition metal hydroxide such as at least one of Cu(OH)₂,Co(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₂ and Ni(OH)₂, an aluminum hydroxide such as Al(OH)₃, aconductor such as at least one of carbon powder and a metal powder, andoptionally H₂O. The solid fuel may comprise at least one oxide such asat least one of a transition metal oxide such as at least one of CuO,Cu₂O, NiO, Ni₂O₃, FeO and Fe₂O₃, a conductor such as at least one ofcarbon powder and a metal powder, and H₂O. The solid fuel may compriseat least one halide such as a metal halide such as an alkaline earthmetal halide such as MgCl₂, a conductor such as at least one of carbonpowder and a metal powder such as Co or Fe, and H₂O. The solid fuel maycomprise a mixture of solid fuels such as one comprising at least two ofa hydroxide, an oxyhydroxide, an oxide, and a halide such as a metalhalide, and at least one conductor or conductive matrix, and H₂O. Theconductor may comprise at least one of a metal screen coated with one ormore of the other components of the reaction mixture that comprises thesolid fuel, R—Ni, a metal powder such as a transition metal powder, Nior Co celmet, carbon, or a carbide or other conductor, or conducingsupport or conducting matrix known to those skilled in the art.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises carbon such as activatedcarbon and H₂O. In the case that the ignition to form plasma occursunder vacuum or an inert atmosphere, following plasma-to-electricitygeneration, the carbon condensed from the plasma may be rehydrated toreform the solid in a regenerative cycle. The solid fuel may comprise atleast one of a mixture of acidic, basic, or neutral H₂O and activatedcarbon, charcoal, soft charcoal, at least one of steam and hydrogentreated carbon, and a metal powder. In an embodiment, the metal of thecarbon-metal mixture is at least partially unreactive with H₂O. Suitablemetals that are at least partially stable toward reaction with H₂O areat least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe,Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti,Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The mixture may be regenerated by rehydrationcomprising addition of H₂O.

In an embodiment, the basic required reactants are a source of H, asource of O, and a good conductor matrix to allow a high current topermeate the material during ignition. The solid fuel or energeticmaterial may be contained in a sealed vessel such as a sealed metalvessel such as a sealed aluminum vessel. The solid fuel or energeticmaterial may be reacted by a low-voltage, high-current pulse such as onecreated by a spot welder such as that achieved by confinement betweenthe two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spotwelder and subjected to a short burst of low-voltage, high-currentelectrical energy. The 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS and thecurrent may be about 10,000 to 40,000A/cm².

Exemplary energetic materials and conditions are at least one of TiOOH,GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH,MnOOH, ZnOOH, SmOOH, Ni₂O₃.H₂O, La₂O₃.H₂O, and Na₂SO₄.H₂O coated onto aNi mesh screen as a slurry and dried and then subjected to an electricalpulse of about 60 Hz, 8 V RMS, and to 40,000 A/cm².

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a cation capable ofhaving multiple stable oxidation states as a compound comprising oxygensuch as one comprising at least one of Mo, Ni, Co, and Fe wherein thecation is capable of having multiple stable oxidation states such as 2⁺and 3⁺ oxidation states in the case of Ni, Co, and Fe and 2⁺, 3⁺, 4⁺,5⁺, and 6⁺ oxidation states in the case of Mo. These states may bepresent as hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, oxide, and halide compounds. Thechange in oxidation state may facilitate the propagation of the hydrinoreaction by eliminating the self-limiting charge buildup by theionization of the HOH catalyst during reaction by the cation undergoingreduction.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises H₂O anda dispersant and dissociator to form nascent H₂O and H. Suitableexemplary dispersants and dissociators are a halide compound such as ametal halide such as a transition metal halide such as a bromide such asFeBr₂, a compound that forms a hydrate such as CuBr₂, and compounds suchas oxides and halides having a metal capable of multiple oxidationstates. Others comprise oxides, oxyhydroxides, or hydroxides such asthose of transition elements such as CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, CoOOH, Co(OH)₂,Co(OH)₃, NiO, Ni₂O₃, NiOOH, Ni(OH)₂, FeO, Fe₂O₃, FeOOH, Fe(OH)₃, CuO,Cu₂O, CuOOH, and Cu(OH)₂. In other embodiments, the transition metal isreplaced by another such as alkali, alkaline earth, inner transition,and rare earth metal, and Group 13 and 14 metals. Suitable examples areLa₂O₃, CeO₂, and LaX₃ (X=halide). In another embodiment, the solid fuelor energetic material comprises H₂O as a hydrate of an inorganiccompound such as an oxide, oxyhydroxides, hydroxide, or halide. Othersuitable hydrates are metal compounds of the present disclosure such asat least one of the group of sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate,hydrogen carbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, hypochlorite,chlorite, chlorate, perchlorate, hypobromite, bromite, bromate,perchlorate, hypoiodite, iodite, iodate, periodate, hydrogen sulfate,hydrogen or dihydrogen phosphate, other metal compounds with anoxyanion, and metal halides. The moles ratios of dispersant anddissociator such as a metal oxide or halide compound is any desired thatgives rise to an ignition event. Suitable the moles of at the at leastone compound to the moles H₂O are in at least one range of about0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1to 10, and 0.5 to 1 wherein the ratio is defined as (molescompound/moles H₂O). The solid fuel or energetic material may furthercomprise a conductor or conducing matrix such as at least one of a metalpowder such as a transition metal powder, Ni or Co celmet, carbonpowder, or a carbide or other conductor, or conducing support orconducting matrix known to those skilled in the art. Suitable ratios ofmoles of the hydrated compound comprising at the least one compound andH₂O to the moles of the conductor are in at least one range of about0.000001 to 100000, 0.00001 to 10000, 0.0001 to 1000, 0.01 to 100, 0.1to 10, and 0.5 to 1 wherein the ratio is defined as (moles hydratedcompound/moles conductor).

In an embodiment, the reactant is regenerated from the product by theaddition of H₂O. In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic materialcomprises H₂O and a conductive matrix suitable for the low-voltage,high-current of the present disclosure to flow through the hydratedmaterial to result in ignition. The conductive matrix material may be atleast one of a metal surface, metal powder, carbon, carbon powder,carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, nitrile, another ofthe present disclosure, or known to those skilled in the art. Theaddition of H₂O to form the solid fuel or energetic material orregenerate it from the products may be continuous or intermittent.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a mixture ofconductive matrix, an oxide such as a mixture of a metal and thecorresponding metal oxide such as a transition metal and at least one ofits oxides such as ones selected from Fe, Cu, Ni, or Co, and H₂O. TheH₂O may be in the form of hydrated oxide. In other embodiments, themetal/metal oxide reactant comprises a metal that has a low reactivitywith H₂O corresponding to the oxide being readily capable of beingreduced to the metal, or the metal not oxidizing during the hydrinoreaction. A suitable exemplary metal having low H2O reactivity is onechosen from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd,Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. Themetal may be converted to the oxide during the reaction. The oxideproduct corresponding to the metal reactant may be regenerated to theinitial metal by hydrogen reduction by systems and methods known bythose skilled in the art. The hydrogen reduction may be at elevatedtemperature. The hydrogen may be supplied by the electrolysis of H₂O. Inanother embodiment, the metal is regenerated form the oxide bycarbo-reduction, reduction with a reductant such as a more oxygen activemetal, or by electrolysis such as electrolysis in a molten salt. Theformation of the metal from the oxide may be achieved by systems andmethods known by those skilled in the art. The molar amount of metal tometal oxide to H₂O are any desirable that results in ignition whensubjected to a low-voltage, high current pulse of electricity as givenin the present disclosure. Suitable ranges of relative molar amounts of(metal), (metal oxide), (H₂O) are at least one of about (0.000001 to100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000),(0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100);(0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10),(0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel orenergetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, solution,emulsion, composite, and a compound.

The solid fuel or energetic material may comprise a mixture ofconductive matrix, a halide such as a mixture of a first metal and thecorresponding first metal halide or a second metal halide, and H₂O. TheH₂O may be in the form of hydrated halide. The second metal halide maybe more stable than the first metal halide. In an embodiment, the firstmetal has a low reactivity with H₂O corresponding to the oxide beingreadily capable of being reduced to the metal, or the metal notoxidizing during the hydrino reaction. A suitable exemplary metal havinglow H₂O reactivity is one chosen from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge,Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al,V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr. The molar amount of metal to metal halide to H₂Oare any desirable that results in ignition when subjected to alow-voltage, high current pulse of electricity as given in the presentdisclosure. Suitable ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal), (metalhalide), (H₂O) are at least one of about (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100); (0.01 to 100),(0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10); and(0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel or energetic materialmay comprise at least one of a slurry, solution, emulsion, composite,and a compound.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material may comprise aconductor such as one of the present disclosure such as a metal orcarbon, a hydroscopic material, and H₂O. Suitable exemplary hydroscopicmaterials are lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride,zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite suchas KMgCl₃.6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide andsodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids,cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey,glycerol, ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, manyfertilizer chemicals, salts (including table salt) and a wide variety ofother substances know to those skilled in the art as well as a desiccantsuch as silica, activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride,and molecular sieves (typically, zeolites) or a deliquescent materialsuch as zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodiumhydroxide and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilledin the art. Suitable ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal),(hydroscopic material), (H₂O) are at least one of about (0.000001 to100000), (0.000001 to 100000), (0.000001 to 100000); (0.00001 to 10000),(0.00001 to 10000), (0.00001 to 10000); (0.0001 to 1000), (0.0001 to1000), (0.0001 to 1000); (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100), (0.001 to 100);(0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100), (0.01 to 100); (0.1 to 10), (0.1 to 10),(0.1 to 10); and (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1), (0.5 to 1). The solid fuel orenergetic material may comprise at least one of a slurry, solution,emulsion, composite, and a compound.

In an exemplary energetic material, 0.05 ml (50 mg) of H₂O was added to20 mg or either Co₃O₄ or CuO that was sealed in an aluminum DSC pan(Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7×3 (Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and Aluminumcover D: 6,7, stamped, non-tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) and ignitedwith a current of between 15,000 to 25,000 A at about 8 V RMS using aTaylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder. A large energy burst wasobserved that vaporized the samples, each as an energetic,highly-ionized, expanding plasma. Another exemplary solid fuel ignitedin the same manner with a similar result comprises Cu (42.6 mg)+CuO(14.2 mg)+H₂O (16.3 mg) that was sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (71.1 mg)(Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7×3 (Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and Aluminumcover D: 6,7, stamped, tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)).

In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises asource of nascent H₂O catalyst and a source of H. In an embodiment, thesolid fuel or energetic material is conductive or comprises a conductivematrix material to cause the mixture of the source of nascent H₂Ocatalyst and a source of H to be conductive. The source of at least oneof a source of nascent H₂O catalyst and a source of H is a compound ormixture of compounds and a material that comprises at least O and H. Thecompound or material that comprises O may be at least one of an oxide, ahydroxide, and an oxyhydroxide such as alkali, alkaline earth,transition metal, inner transition metal, rare earth metal, and group 13and 14 metal oxide, hydroxide and oxyhydroxide. The compound or materialthat comprises O may be a sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate,hydrogen carbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate,perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃, MXO₄ (M=metal such as alkali metal suchas Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X═F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickelmagnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide,alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂,SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO, Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃,P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄,Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, rare earth oxide such as CeO₂ or La₂O₃, anoxyhydroxide such as TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH,AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH. Exemplary sourcesof H are H₂O, a compound that has bound or absorbed H₂O such as ahydrate, a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, or hydrogen sulfate, hydrogen ordihydrogen phosphate, and a hydrocarbon. The conductive matrix materialmay be at least one of a metal powder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide,boride, nitride, carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile. The conductorsof the present disclosure may be in different physical forms indifferent embodiments, such as bulk, particulate, power, nanopowder, andother forms know to those skilled in the art that cause the solid fuelor energetic material comprising a mixture with the conductor to beconductive.

Exemplary solid fuels or energetic materials comprise at least one ofH₂O and a conductive matrix. In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuelcomprises H₂O and a metal conductor such as a transition metal such asFe in a form such as a Fe metal powder conductor and a Fe compound suchas iron hydroxide, iron oxide, iron oxyhydroxide, and iron halidewherein the latter may substitute for H₂O as the hydrate that serves asthe source of H₂O. Other metals may substitute for Fe in any of theirphysical forms such as metals and compounds as well as state such asbulk, sheet, screen, mesh, wire, particulate, powder, nanopowder andsolid, liquid, and gaseous. The conductor may comprise carbon in one ormore physical forms such as at least one of bulk carbon, particulatecarbon, carbon powder, carbon aerogel, carbon nanotubes, activatedcarbon, graphene, KOH activated carbon or nanotubes, carbide derivedcarbon, carbon fiber cloth, and fullerene. Suitable exemplary solidfuels or energetic materials are CuBr₂+H₂O+conductive matrix;Cu(OH)₂+FeBr₂+conductive matrix material such as carbon or a metalpowder; FeOOH+conductive matrix material such as carbon or a metalpowder; Cu(OH)Br+conductive matrix material such as carbon or a metalpowder; AlOOH or Al(OH)₃+Al powder wherein addition H₂ is supplied tothe reactions to form hydrinos by reaction of Al with H₂O formed fromthe decomposition of AlOOH or Al(OH)₃; H₂O in conducting nanoparticlessuch as carbon nanotubes and fullerene that may be steam activated andH₂O in metalized zeolites wherein a dispersant may be used to wethydrophobic material such as carbon; NH₄NO₃+H₂O+NiAl alloy powder;LiNH₂+LiNO₃+Ti powder; LiNH₂+LiNO₃+Pt/Ti; LiNH₂+NH₄NO₃+Ti powder;BH₃NH₃+NH₄NO₃; BH₃NH₃+CO₂, SO₂, NO₂, as well as nitrates, carbonates,sulfates; LiH+NH₄NO₃+transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or otheroxidizable metal; NH₄NO₃+transition metal, rare earth metal, Al or otheroxidizable metal; NH₄NO₃+R—Ni; P₂O₅ with each of a hydroxide of thepresent disclosure, LiNO₃, LiClO₄ and S₂O₈+conductive matrix; and asource of H such as a hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, hydrogen storage materialsuch as one or more of the present disclosure, diesel fuel and a sourceof oxygen that may also be an electron acceptor such as P₂O₅ and otheracid anhydrides such as CO₂, SO₂, or NO₂.

The solid fuel or energetic material to form hydrinos may comprise atleast one highly reactive or energetic material, such as NH₄NO₃,tritonal, RDX, PETN, and others of the present disclosure. The solidfuel or energetic material may additionally comprise at least one of aconductor, a conducting matrix, or a conducting material such as a metalpowder, carbon, carbon powder, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrilesuch as TiCN, or nitrile, a hydrocarbon such as diesel fuel, anoxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, an oxide, and H₂O. In an exemplaryembodiment, the solid fuel or energetic material comprises a highlyreactive or energetic material such as NH₄NO₃, tritonal, RDX, and PETNand a conductive matrix such as at least one of a metal powder such asAl or a transition metal powder and carbon powder. The solid fuel orenergetic material may be reacted with a high current as given in thepresent disclosure. In an embodiment, the solid fuel or energeticmaterial further comprises a sensitizer such as glass micro-spheres.

The energetic material may be a source for hydrino gas collection. In anembodiment, the ignition of a solid fuel creates at least one of anexpanding gas, expanding suspension that may be at least partiallyionized, and expanding plasma. The expansion may be into vacuum. In anembodiment, the gas, suspension, or plasma that may expand such as intovacuum creates nanoparticles as at least one of the gas, suspension, orplasma cools. The nanoparticles serve as a new material with uniqueapplications in areas such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and surfacecoatings.

A. Plasmadynamic Converter (PDC)

The mass of a positively charge ion of a plasma is at least 1800 timesthat of the electron; thus, the cyclotron orbit is 1800 times larger.This result allows electrons to be magnetically trapped on magneticfield lines while ions may drift. Charge separation may occur to providea voltage to a plasmadynamic converter.

B. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Converter

Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions in acrossed magnetic field is well known art as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)power conversion. The positive and negative ions undergo Lorentziandirection in opposite directions and are received at corresponding MHDelectrode to affect a voltage between them. The typical MHD method toform a mass flow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas seeded withions through a nozzle to create a high speed flow through the crossedmagnetic field with a set of MHD electrodes crossed with respect to thedeflecting field to receive the deflected ions. In the presentdisclosure, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric, but notnecessarily so, and the directional mass flow may be achieved byreaction of a solid fuel to form a highly ionize radially expandingplasma.

C. Electromagnetic Direct (Crossed Field or Drift) Converter, {rightarrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} Direct Converter

The guiding center drift of charged particles in magnetic and crossedelectric fields may be exploited to separate and collect charge atspatially separated {right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)}electrodes. As the device extracts particle energy perpendicular to aguide field, plasma expansion may not be necessary. The performance ofan idealized {right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} converterrelies on the inertial difference between ions and electrons that is thesource of charge separation and the production of a voltage at opposing{right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} electrodes relative to thecrossed field directions. ∇{right arrow over (B)} drift collection mayalso be used independently or in combination with {right arrow over(E)}×{right arrow over (B)} collection.

D. Charge Drift Converter

The direct power converter described by Timofeev and Glagolev [A. V.Timofeev, “A scheme for direct conversion of plasma thermal energy intoelectrical energy,” Sov. J. Plasma Phys., Vol. 4, No. 4, July-August,(1978), pp. 464-468; V. M. Glagolev, and A. V. Timofeev, “DirectConversion of thermonuclear into electrical energy a drakon system,”Plasma Phys. Rep., Vol. 19, No. 12, December (1993), pp. 745-749] relieson charge injection to drifting separated positive ions in order toextract power from a plasma. This charge drift converter comprises amagnetic field gradient in a direction transverse to the direction of asource of a magnetic flux B and a source of magnetic flux B having acurvature of the field lines. In both cases, drifting negatively andpositively charged ions move in opposite directions perpendicular toplane formed by B and the direction of the magnetic field gradient orthe plane in which B has curvature. In each case, the separated ionsgenerate a voltage at opposing capacitors that are parallel to the planewith a concomitant decrease of the thermal energy of the ions. Theelectrons are received at one charge drift converter electrode and thepositive ions are received at another. Since the mobility of ions ismuch less than that of electrons, electron injection may be performeddirectly or by boiling them off from a heated charge drift converterelectrode. The power loss is small without much cost in power balance.

E. Magnetic Confinement Consider that the blast or ignition event iswhen the catalysis of H to form hydrinos accelerates to a very highrate. In an embodiment, the plasma produced from the blast or ignitionevent is expanding plasma. In this case, magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is asuitable conversion system and method. Alternatively, in an embodiment,the plasma is confined. In this case, the conversion may be achievedwith at least one of a plasmadynamic converter, magnetohydrodynamicconverter, electromagnetic direct (crossed field or drift) converter,{right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} direct converter, andcharge drift converter. In this case, in addition to a SF-CIHT cell andbalance of plant comprising ignition, reloading, regeneration, fuelhandling, and plasma to electric power conversion systems, the powergeneration system further comprises a plasma confinement system. Theconfinement may be achieved with magnetic fields such as solenoidalfields. The magnets may comprise at least one of permanent magnets andelectromagnets such as at least one of uncooled, water cooled, andsuperconducting magnets with the corresponding cryogenic managementsystem that comprises at least one of a liquid helium dewar, a liquidnitrogen dewar, radiation baffles that may be comprise copper, highvacuum insulation, radiation shields, and a cyropump and compressor thatmay be powered by the power output of a hydrino-based power generator.The magnets may be open coils such as Helmholtz coils. The plasma mayfurther be confined in a magnetic bottle and by other systems andmethods known to those skilled in the art.

Two magnetic mirrors or more may form a magnetic bottle to confineplasma formed by the catalysis of H to form hydrinos. The theory of theconfinement is given in my prior applications such as Microwave PowerCell, Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter, PCT/US02/06955, filed Mar.7, 2002 (short version), PCT/US02/06945 filed Mar. 7, 2002 (longversion), U.S. case Ser. No. 10/469,913 filed Sep. 5, 2003 hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety. Ions created in the bottlein the center region will spiral along the axis, but will be reflectedby the magnetic mirrors at each end. The more energetic ions with highcomponents of velocity parallel to a desired axis will escape at theends of the bottle. Thus, in an embodiment, the bottle may produce anessentially linear flow of ions from the ends of the magnetic bottle toa magnetohydrodynamic converter. Since electrons may be preferentiallyconfined due to their lower mass relative to positive ions, and avoltage is developed in a plasmadynamic embodiment of the presentdisclosure. Power flows between an anode in contact with the confinedelectrons and a cathode such as the confinement vessel wall whichcollects the positive ions. The power may be dissipated in an externalload.

F. Solid Fuel Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell

Chemical reactants of the present invention may be referred to as solidfuel or energetic materials or both. A solid fuel may perform as andthereby comprise an energetic material when conditions are created andmaintained to cause very high reaction kinetics to form hydrinos. In anembodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application ordevelopment of a high current. In an embodiment of an SF-CIHT cell, thereactants to form hydrinos are subject to a low voltage, high current,high power pulse that causes a very rapid reaction rate and energyrelease. The rate may be sufficient to create a shock wave. In anexemplary embodiment, a 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak, thecurrent is between 10,000 A/cm² and 50,000 A/cm² peak, and the power isbetween 150,000 W/cm² and 750,000 W/cm². Other frequencies, voltages,currents, and powers in ranges of about 1/100 times to 100 times theseparameters are suitable. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate isdependent on the application or development of a high current. In anembodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DCmixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak ACcurrent density may be in the range of at least one of 100 A/cm² to1,000,000 A/cm², 1000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², and 2000 A/cm² to 50,000A/cm². The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range chosenfrom about 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hzto 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may bein at least one range chosen from about 10⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10⁻⁵ s to 1 s,10⁻⁴ s to 0.1 s, and 10⁻³ s to 0.01 s.

The plasma power formed by the hydrino may be directly converted intoelectricity. During H catalysis to hydrinos, electrons are ionized fromthe HOH catalyst by the energy transferred from the H being catalyzed tothe HOH. These electrons may be conducted in the applied high circuitcurrent to prevent the catalysis reaction from being self-limiting bycharge buildup. A blast is produced by the fast kinetics that in turncauses massive electron ionization. The high velocity of the radiallyoutward expansion of the exploding solid fuel that comprises anessentially 100% ionized plasma in the circumferential high magneticfield due to the applied current gives rise to magnetohydrodynamic powerconversion. The magnitude of the voltage increases in the direction ofthe applied polarity since this is the Lorentzian deflection directiondue to the current direction and the corresponding magnetic field vectorand radial flow directions. In an embodiment using magnetohydrodynamicpower conversion, the applied high current is DC such that thecorresponding magnetic field is DC. A space charge electric field in theexpanding plasma and high magnetic field from the applied current mayalso comprise a direct converter that gives rise to the generated DCvoltage and current wherein the applied high current is DC in anembodiment. Moreover, the high magnetic field produced by the highcurrent traps the orders-of-magnitude-lighter electrons on the magneticfield lines while the heavy positive ions drift such that aplasmadynamic voltage may be produced between the electrodes if there isan electrode bias in this effect. In other embodiments, the plasma powerfrom the ignition of solid fuel in converted to electric power using atleast one dedicated plasma to electric converter such as at least one ofa MHD, PDC, and {right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} directconverter. The details of these and other plasma to electric powerconverters are given in my prior publications such as R. M. Mayo, R. L.Mills, M. Nansteel, “Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma ThermalPower to Electricity,” IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, October,(2002), Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 2066-2073; R. M. Mayo, R. L. Mills, M.Nansteel, “On the Potential of Direct and MHD Conversion of Power from aNovel Plasma Source to Electricity for Microdistributed PowerApplications,” IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, August, (2002), Vol.30, No. 4, pp. 1568-1578; R. M. Mayo, R. L. Mills, “Direct PlasmadynamicConversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity for MicrodistributedPower Applications,” 40th Annual Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill,N.J., June 10-13, (2002), pp. 1-4 (“Mills Prior Plasma Power ConversionPublications”) which are herein incorporated by reference in theirentirety and my prior applications such as Microwave Power Cell,Chemical Reactor, And Power Converter, PCT/US02/06955, filed Mar. 7,2002 (short version), PCT/US02/06945 filed Mar. 7, 2002 (long version),U.S. case Ser. No. 10/469,913 filed Sep. 5, 2003; Plasma Reactor AndProcess For Producing Lower-Energy Hydrogen Species, PCT/US04/010608filed Apr. 8, 2004, U.S. Ser. No. 10/552,585 filed Oct. 12, 2015; andHydrogen Power, Plasma, and Reactor for Lasing, and Power Conversion,PCT/US02/35872 filed Nov. 8, 2002, U.S. Ser. No. 10/494,571 filed May 6,2004 (“Mills Prior Plasma Power Conversion Publications”) hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety.

The plasma energy converted to electricity is dissipated in an externalcircuit. As demonstrated by calculations and experimentally in MillsPrior Plasma Power Conversion Publications greater than 50% conversionof plasma energy to electricity can be achieved. Heat as well as plasmais produced by each SF-CIHT cell. The heat may be used directly orconverted to mechanical or electrical power using converters known bythose skilled in the art such as a heat engine such as a steam engine orsteam or gas turbine and generator, a Rankine or Brayton-cycle engine,or a Stirling engine. For power conversion, each SF CIHT cell may beinterfaced with any of the converters of thermal energy or plasma tomechanical or electrical power described in Mills Prior Publications aswell as converters known to those skilled in the art such as a heatengine, steam or gas turbine system, Stirling engine, or thermionic orthermoelectric converter. Further plasma converters comprise at leastone of plasmadynamic power converter, {right arrow over (E)}×{rightarrow over (B)} direct converter, magnetohydrodynamic power converter,magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, charge driftconverter, Post or Venetian Blind power converter, gyrotron, photonbunching microwave power converter, and photoelectric converterdisclosed in Mills Prior Publications. In an embodiment, the cellcomprises at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine asgiven in Mills Prior Thermal Power Conversion Publications, Mills PriorPlasma Power Conversion Publications, and Mills Prior Applications.

A solid fuel catalyst induced hydrino transition (SF-CIHT) cell powergenerator shown in FIG. 3 comprises at least one SF-CIHT cell 1 having astructural support frame 1 a, each having at least two electrodes 2 thatconfine a sample, pellet, portion, or aliquot of solid fuel 3 and asource of electrical power 4 to deliver a short burst of low-voltage,high-current electrical energy through the fuel 3. The current ignitesthe fuel to release energy from forming hydrinos. The power is in theform of thermal power and highly ionized plasma of the fuel 3 capable ofbeing converted directly into electricity. (Herein “ignites or formsblast” refers to the establishment of high hydrino reaction kinetics dueto a high current applied to the fuel.) Exemplary sources of electricalpower are that of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder and an EMTest Model CSS 500N10 CURRENT SURGE GENERATOR, 8/20US UP TO 10KA. In anembodiment, the source of electrical power 4 is DC, and the plasma toelectric power converter is suited for a DC magnetic field. Suitableconverters that operate with a DC magnetic field aremagnetohydrodynamic, plasmadynamic, and {right arrow over (E)}×{rightarrow over (B)} power converters. In an embodiment, the magnetic fieldmay be provided by the current of the source of electrical power 4 ofFIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B that may flow through additional electromagnets aswell as the solid fuel pellet 3 (FIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B). In anembodiment of a PDC plasma to electric converter, the radial magneticfield due to current of electrode 2 may magnetized at least one PDCelectrode that is shaped to follow the contour of the magnetic fieldlines. At least one PDC electrode perpendicular to the radial magneticfield lines comprises an unmagnetized PDC electrode. A voltage isgenerated between the at least one magnetized and one unmagnetized PDCelectrode of the PDC converter.

In an embodiment, the source of electrical power 4 is capable ofsupplying or accepting high-currents such as those given in the presentdisclosure wherein by accepting current the self-limiting charge buildup from the hydrino reaction may be ameliorated. The source and sink ofcurrent may be a transformer circuit, an LC circuit, an RLC circuit,capacitors, ultra-capacitors, inductors, batteries, and other lowimpedance or low resistance circuits or circuit elements and electricalenergy storage elements or devices known to those skilled in the artabout how to produce and accept large currents that may be in the formof at least one burst or pulse. In another embodiment shown in FIG. 4B,the ignition power source 4 that may also serve as a startup powersource comprises at least one capacitor such as a bank of low voltage,high capacitance capacitors that supply the low voltage, high currentnecessary to achieve ignition. The capacitor circuit may be designed toavoid ripple or ringing during discharge to increase the lifetime of thecapacitors. The lifetime may be long, such as in the range of about 1 to20 years.

In an embodiment, the geometrical area of the electrodes is the same orlarger than that of the solid fuel area in order to provide high currentdensity to the entire sample to be ignited. In an embodiment, theelectrodes are carbon to avoid loss of conductivity due to oxidation atthe surface. In another embodiment, the ignition of the solid fueloccurs in a vacuum so that the electrodes are not oxidized. Theelectrodes may be at least one of continuously or intermittentlyregenerated with metal from a component of the solid fuel 3. The solidfuel may comprise metal in a form that is melted during ignition suchthat some adheres, fuses, weld, or alloys to the surface to replaceelectrode 2 material such as metal that was eroded way or worn awayduring operation. The SF-CIHT cell power generator may further comprisea means to repair the shape of the electrodes such as the teeth of gears2 a. The means may comprise at least one of a cast mold, a grinder, anda milling machine.

The power system further comprises a conveying reloading mechanicalsystem 5 to remove the products of spent fuel and reload the electrodes2 to confine another solid fuel pellet for ignition. In an embodiment,the fuel 3 comprises a continuous strip that is only ignited where thecurrent flows through. Then, in the present disclosure, solid fuelpellet 3 refers in a general sense to a portion of the strip of solidfuel. The electrodes 2 may open and close during reloading. Themechanical action may be effected by systems known to those skilled inthe art such as pneumatic, solenoidal, or electric motor action systems.The conveying reloading system may comprise a linear conveyor belt thatmoves product out and fuel into position to be confined by theelectrodes 2. Alternatively, the conveying reloading system may comprisea carousel 5 that rotates between each ignition to remove products andposition fuel 3 to be confined by the electrodes 2 for another ignition.The carousel 5 may comprise a metal that is resistant to melting orcorroding such as a refractory alloy, high temperature oxidationresistant alloys such as TiAlN, or high temperature stainless steel suchas those known in the art. In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell powergenerator shown in FIG. 3 produces intermittent bursts ofhydrino-produced power from one SF-CIHT cell 1. Alternatively, the powergenerator comprises a plurality of SF-CIHT cells 1 that output thesuperposition of the individual cell's hydrino-produced power duringtimed blast events of solid fuel pellets 3. In an embodiment, the timingof the events amongst the plurality of cell may provide more continuousoutput power. In other embodiments, the fuel is continuously fed to thehigh current between the electrodes 2 to produce continuous power. In anembodiment, the two electrodes 2 that confine the solid fuel areextended such that contact can be made at opposing points along thelength of the extended set of electrodes 2 to cause a sequence ofhigh-current flow and rapid hydrino reaction kinetics along theelectrode set 2. The opposing contact points on opposite electrodes 2may be made by mechanically moving the corresponding connections to thelocation or by electronically switching the connections. The connectionscan be made in a synchronous manner to achieve a more steady poweroutput from the cell or plurality cells. The fuels and ignitionparameters are those given in the present disclosure.

To dampen any intermittence, some power may be stored in a capacitor andoptionally a high-current transformer, battery, or other energy storagedevice. In another embodiment, the electrical output from one cell candeliver a short burst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energythat ignites the fuel of another cell. The output electrical power canfurther be conditioned by output power conditioner 7 connected by powerconnector 8. The output power conditioner 7 may comprise elements suchas power storage such as a battery or supercapacitor, DC to AC (DC/AC)converter or inverter, and a transformer. DC power may be converted toanother form of DC power such as one with a higher voltage; the powermay be converted to AC, or mixtures of DC and AC. The output power maybe power conditioned to a desired waveform such as 60 Hz AC power andsupplied to a load through output terminals 9. In an embodiment, theoutput power conditioner 7 converts the power from the plasma toelectric converter or the thermal to electric converter to a desiredfrequency and wave form such as an AC frequency other than 60 or 50 HZthat are standard in the United States and Europe, respectively. Thedifferent frequency may be applied to matching loads designed for thedifferent frequency such as motors such as those for motive, aviation,marine, appliances, tools, and machinery, electric heating and spaceconditioning, telecommunications, and electronics applications. Aportion of the output power at power output terminals 9 may used topower the source of electrical power 4 such as about 5-10 V,10,000-40,000 A DC power. MHD and PDC power converters may outputlow-voltage, high current DC power that is well suited for re-poweringthe electrodes 2 to cause ignition of subsequently supplied fuel. Theoutput of low voltage, high current may be supplied to DC loads. The DCmay be conditioned with a DC/DC converter. Exemplary DC loads compriseDC motors such as electrically commutated motors such as those formotive, aviation, marine, appliances, tools, and machinery, DC electricheating and space conditioning, DC telecommunications, and DCelectronics applications.

Since the power may be distributed, no power transmission may be needed,and high voltage DC transmission with minimum losses is an option wheretransmission is desired such as in a local area grid. Then, powerapplications may be powered with high current DC, and DC power may haveadvantages over AC. In fact, many if not most power loads such asmotors, appliances, lighting, and electronics are operated on DC powerconverted from transmitted AC grid power. Another application that maybenefit from the direct high current DC power output of the SF-CIHT cellis electric motive power that may use DC brushed, or brushless,electrically commutated DC motors. The DC/AC converter, in many cases,AC/DC converter, and corresponding conversions are eliminated with thedirect, high current DC power output of the SF-CIHT cell. This resultsin reductions in the cost of capital equipment and power fromeliminating the losses during conversion between DC and AC.

In an embodiment, a supercapacitor or a battery 16 (FIGS. 3 and 4A) isbe used to start the SF-CIHT cell by supplying the power for the initialignition so that power for subsequent ignitions is provided by outputpower conditioner 7 that in turn is powdered by plasma to electric powerconverter 6. In an embodiment, the output of the power conditioner 7flows to an energy storage device such as 16 to restart the powergenerator. The storage may also store power or supply power to levelrapid changes in load and thereby provide load leveling. The powergenerator may provide variable power output by controlling the rate thatfuel is consumed by controlling the rate that it is fed into theelectrodes 2 by controlling a variable or interruptible rotation speedof carrousel 5 a. Alternatively, the rate that the electrodes 2 arefired is variable and controlled.

The ignition generates an output plasma and thermal power. The plasmapower may be directly converted to electricity by plasma to electricpower converter 6. The cell may be operated open to atmosphere. In anembodiment, the cell 1 is capable of maintaining a vacuum or a pressureless than atmospheric. The vacuum or a pressure less than atmosphericmay be maintained by vacuum pump 13 a to permit ions for the expandingplasma of the ignition of the solid fuel 3 to be free of collisions withatmospheric gases. In an embodiment, a vacuum or a pressure less thanatmospheric is maintained in the system comprising the plasma-generatingcell 1 and the connected plasma to electric converter 6. The vacuum or apressure less than atmospheric eliminates gases whose collisionsinterfere with plasma to electric conversion. In an embodiment, the cell1 may be filled with an inert gas such that the solid fuel or ignitionproducts do not react with oxygen. The oxygen free cell 1 due to thecell being under vacuum or filled with an inert gas is favorable to fuelregeneration, especially when the fuel comprises a conductor such ascarbon or a metal that is reacts unfavorably with H₂O towardsoxidization. Such metals are at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb,Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc,Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. The cell under vacuumis favorable to plasma to electric conversion since the plasma ion-gascollisions and thermalization of the plasma ion kinetic energy areavoided.

The thermal power may be extracted by at least one of an electrode heatexchanger 10 with coolant flowing through its electrode coolant inletline 11 and electrode coolant outlet line 12 and a MHD heat exchanger 18with coolant flowing through its MHD coolant inlet line 19 and MHDcoolant outlet line 20. Other heat exchangers may be used to receive thethermal power from the hydrino reaction such as a water-wall type ofdesign that may further be applied on at least one wall of the vessel 1,at least one other wall of the MHD converter, and the back of theelectrodes 17 of the MHD converter. These and other heat exchangerdesigns to efficiently and cost effectively remove the heat form thereaction are known to those skilled in the art. The heat may betransferred to a heat load. Thus, the power system may comprise a heaterwith the heat supplied by the at least one of the coolant outlet lines12 and 20 going to the thermal load or a heat exchanger that transfersheat to a thermal load. The cooled coolant may return by at least one ofthe coolant inlet lines 11 and 19. The heat supplied by at least one ofthe coolant outlet lines 12 and 20 may flow to a heat engine, a steamengine, a steam turbine, a gas turbine, a Rankine-cycle engine, aBrayton-cycle engine, and a Stirling engine to be converted tomechanical power such as that of spinning at least one of a shaft,wheels, a generator, an aviation turbofan or turbopropeller, a marinepropeller, an impeller, and rotating shaft machinery. Alternatively, thethermal power may flow from at lest one of the coolant outlet lines 12and 20 to a thermal to electric power converter such as those of thepresent disclosure. Suitable exemplary thermal to electricity converterscomprise at least one of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, asteam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, aRankine-cycle engine, a Brayton-cycle engine, a Stirling engine, athermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Theoutput power from the thermal to electric converter may be used to powera load, and a portion may power components of the SF-CIHT cell powergenerator such as the source of electrical power 4.

Ignition of the reactants of a given pellet yields power and productswherein the power may be in the form of plasma of the products. Theplasma to electric converter 6 generates electric from the plasma.Following transit through it, the plasma to electric converter 6 mayfurther comprise a condensor of the plasma products and a conveyor tothe reloading system 5. Then, the products are transported by thereloading system such as carousel 5 to a product remover-fuel loader 13that conveys the products from the reloading system 5 to a regenerationsystem 14. In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generator furthercomprises a vacuum pump 13 a that may remove any product oxygen andmolecular hydrino gas. In an embodiment, at least one of oxygen andmolecular hydrino are collected in a tank as a commercial product. Thepump may further comprise selective membranes, valves, sieves,cryofilters, or other means known by those skilled in the art forseparation of oxygen and hydrino gas and may additionally collect H₂Ovapor, and may supply H₂O to the regeneration system 14 to be recycledin the regenerated solid fuel. Herein, the spent fuel is regeneratedinto the original reactants or fuel with any H or H₂O consumed such asin the formation of hydrino made up with H₂O from H₂O source 14 a. Thewater source may comprise a tank, cell, or vessel 14 a that may containat least one of bulk or gaseous H₂O, or a material or compoundcomprising H₂O or one or more reactants that forms H₂O such as H₂+O₂.Alternatively, the source may comprise atmospheric water vapor, or ameans to extract H₂O from the atmosphere such as a hydroscopic materialsuch as lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, zincchloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite such asKMgCl₃.6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide and sodiumhydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids, cellulosefibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol,ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, many fertilizerchemicals, salts (including table salt) and a wide variety of othersubstances know to those skilled in the art as well as a desiccant suchas silica, activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, andmolecular sieves (typically, zeolites) or a deliquescent material suchas zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodiumhydroxide and many different deliquescent salts known to those skilledin the art.

In another embodiment, the reloading system such as carousel 5 comprisesa hopper that is filled with regenerated solid fuel from theregeneration system 14 by product remover-fuel loader 13. The fuel flowsout of the bottom between the electrodes 2. The electrodes 2 may openand close to ignite each portion of fuel that flows into position forignition between the electrodes 2 or is so placed by a spreader. In anembodiment, the fuel 3 comprises a fine powder that may be formed byball milling regenerated or reprocessed solid fuel wherein theregeneration system 14 may further comprise a ball mill, grinder, orother means of forming smaller particles from larger particles such asthose grinding or milling means known in the art. An exemplary solidfuel mixture comprises a conductor such as conducting metal powder suchas a powder of a transition metal, silver, or aluminum, its oxide, andH₂O. In another embodiment, the fuel 3 may comprise pellets of the solidfuel that may be pressed in the regeneration system 14. The solid fuelpellet may further comprise a thin foil of the powdered metal or anothermetal that encapsulates the metal oxide and H₂O, and optionally themetal powder. In this case, the regeneration system 14 regenerates themetal foil by means such as at least one of heating in vacuum, heatingunder a reducing hydrogen atmosphere, and electrolysis from anelectrolyte such as a molten salt electrolyte. The regeneration system14 further comprises metal processing systems such as rolling or millingmachinery to form the foil from regenerated foil metal stock. The jacketmay be formed by a stamping machine or a press wherein the encapsulatedsolid fuel may be stamped or pressed inside.

In an embodiment, an exemplary solid fuel mixture comprises a transitionmetal powder, its oxide, and H₂O. The fine powder may be pneumaticallysprayed into the gap formed between the electrodes 2 when they open. Inanother embodiment, the fuel comprises at least one of a powder andslurry. The fuel may be injected into a desired region to be confinedbetween the electrodes 2 to be ignited by a high current. To betterconfine the powder, the electrodes 2 may have male-female halves thatform a chamber to hold the fuel. In an embodiment, the fuel and theelectrodes 2 may be oppositely electrostatically charged such that thefuel flows into the inter-electrode region and electrostatically sticksto a desired region of each electrode 2 where the fuel is ignited.

In an embodiment of the power generator shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, theelectrodes surfaces 2 may be parallel with the gravitational axis, andsolid fuel powder 3 may be gravity flowed from an overhead hopper 5 asintermittent stream wherein the timing of the intermittent flow streamsmatches the dimensions of the electrodes 2 as they open to receive theflowing powdered fuel 3 and close to ignite the fuel stream. In anotherembodiment, the electrodes 2 further comprise rollers 2 a on their endsthat are separated by a small gap filled with fuel flow. Theelectrically conductive fuel 3 completes the circuit between theelectrodes 2, and the high current flow through the fuel ignites it. Thefuel stream 3 may be intermittent to prevent the expanding plasma fromdisrupting the fuel stream flow.

In another embodiment, the electrodes 2 comprise a set of gears 2 asupported by structural element 2 b. The set of gears may be rotated bydrive gear 2 c powered by drive gear motor 2 d. The drive gear 2 c mayfurther serve as a heat sink for each gear 2 a wherein the heat may beremoved by an electrode heat exchanger such as 10 that receives heatfrom the drive gear 2 c. The gears 2 a such herringbone gears eachcomprise an integer n teeth wherein the fuel flows into the n^(th)inter-tooth gap or bottom land as the fuel in the n−1^(th) inter-toothgap is compressed by tooth n−1 of the mating gear. Other geometries forthe gears or the function of the gears are within the scope of thepresent disclosure such as interdigitated polygonal ortriangular-toothed gears, spiral gears, and augers as known to thoseskilled in the art. In an embodiment, the fuel and a desired region ofthe gear teeth of the electrodes 2 a such as the bottom land may beoppositely electrostatically charged such that the fuel flows into andelectrostatically sticks to the desired region of one or both electrodes2 a where the fuel is ignited when the teeth mesh. In an embodiment, thefuel 3 such as a fine powder is pneumatically sprayed into a desiredregion of the gears 2 a. In another embodiment, the fuel 3 is injectedinto a desired region to be confined between the electrodes 2 a such asthe interdigitation region of the teeth of the gears 2 a to be ignitedby a high current. In an embodiment, the rollers or gears 2 a maintaintension towards each other by means such as by being spring loaded or bypneumatic or hydraulic actuation. The meshing of teeth and compressioncauses electrical contact between the mating teeth through theconductive fuel. In an embodiment, the gears are conducting in theinterdigitation region that contacts the fuel during meshing and areinsulating in other regions such that the current selectively flowsthrough the fuel. In an embodiment, the gears 2 a comprise ceramic gearsthat are metal coated to be conductive in the interdigitation region orelectrically isolated without a ground path. Also, the drive gear 2 cmay be nonconductive or electrically isolated without a ground path. Theelectrical contact and supply from the electrodes 2 to theinterdigitating sections of the teeth may be provided by brushes 2 e asshown in FIG. 4A. An exemplary brush comprises a carbon bar or rod thatis pushed into contact with the gear by a spring, for example.

In another embodiment shown in FIG. 4B, electrical contact and supplyfrom the electrodes 2 to the interdigitating sections of the teeth maybe provided directly through a corresponding gear hub and bearings.Structural element 2 b of FIG. 4A may comprise the electrodes 2. Asshown in FIG. 4B, each electrode 2 of the pair of electrodes may becentered on each gear and connected to the center of each gear to serveas both the structural element 2 b of FIG. 4A and the electrode 2wherein the gear bearings connecting each gear 2 a to its shaft or hubserves as an electrical contact, and the only ground path is betweencontacting teeth of opposing gears. In an embodiment, the outer part ofeach gear turns around its central hub to have more electrical contactthrough the additional bearings at the larger radius. The hub may alsoserve as a large heat sink. An electrode heat exchanger 10 may alsoattach to the hub to remove heat from the gears. The heat exchanger 10may be electrically isolated from the hub with a thin layer of insulatorsuch as an electrical insulator having high heat conductivity such asdiamond or diamond-like carbon film. The electrification of the gearscan be timed using a computer and switching transistors such as thoseused in brushless DC electric motors. In an embodiment, the gears areenergized intermittently such that the high current flows through thefuel when the gears are meshed. The flow of the fuel may be timed tomatch the delivery of fuel to the gears as they mesh and the current iscaused to flow through the fuel. The consequent high current flow causesthe fuel to ignite. The fuel may be continuously flowed through thegears or rollers 2 a that rotate to propel the fuel through the gap. Thefuel may be continuously ignited as it is rotated to fill the spacebetween the electrodes 2 comprising meshing regions of a set of gears oropposing sides of a set of rollers. In this case, the output power maybe steady. The resulting plasma expands out the sides of the gears andflows to the plasma to electric converter 6, in an embodiment. Theplasma expansion flow may be along the axis that is parallel with theshaft of each gear and transverse to the direction of the flow of thefuel stream 3. The axial flow may be through an MHD converter. Furtherdirectional flow may be achieved with confining magnets such as those ofHelmholtz coils or a magnetic bottle.

The power generator further comprises means and methods for variablepower output. In an embodiment, the power output of the power generatoris controlled by controlling the variable or interruptible flow rate ofthe fuel 3 into the electrodes 2 or rollers or gears 2 a, and thevariable or interruptible fuel ignition rate by the power source 4. Therate of rotation of the rollers or gears may also be controlled tocontrol the fuel ignition rate. In an embodiment, the output powerconditioner 7 comprises a power controller 7 to control the output thatmay be DC. The power controller may control the fuel flow rate, therotation speed of the gears by controlling the gear drive motor 2 d thatrotates the drive gear 2 c and turns the gears 2 a. The response timebased on the mechanical or electrical control of at least one of thefuel consumption rate or firing rate may be very fast such as in therange of 10 ms to 1 us. The power may also be controlled by controllingthe connectivity of the converter electrodes of the plasma to electricconverter. For example, connecting MHD electrodes 17 or PDC electrodesin series increases the voltage, and connecting converter electrodes inparallel increases the current. Changing the angle of the MHD electrodes17 or selectively connecting to sets of MHD electrodes 17 at differentangles relative to at least one of the plasma propagation direction andmagnetic field direction changes the power collected by changing atleast one of the voltage and current.

The power controller 7 further comprises sensors of input and outputparameters such as voltages, currents, and powers. The signals from thesensors may be fed into a processor that controls the power generator.At least one of the ramp-up time, ramp down time, voltage, current,power, waveform, and frequency may be controlled. The power generatormay comprise a resistor such as a shunt resistor through which power inexcess of that required or desired for a power load may be dissipated.The shunt resistor may be connected to output power conditioner or powercontroller 7. The power generator may comprise an embedded processor andsystem to provide remote monitoring that may further have the capacityto disable the power generator.

The hopper 5 may be refilled with regenerated fuel from the regenerationsystem 14 by product remover-fuel loader 13. Any H or H₂O consumed suchas in the formation of hydrino may be made up with H₂O from H₂O source14 a. In an embodiment, the fuel or fuel pellet 3 is partially tosubstantially vaporized to a gaseous physical state such as a plasmaduring the hydrino reaction blast event. The plasma passes through theplasma to electric power converter 6, and the recombined plasma formsgaseous atoms and compounds. These are condensed by a condensor 15 andcollected and conveyed to the regeneration system 14 by productremover-fuel loader 13 comprising a conveyor connection to theregeneration system 14 and further comprising a conveyor connection tothe hopper 5. The condensor 15 and product remover-fuel loader 13 maycomprise systems such as at least one of an electrostatic collectionsystem and at least one auger, conveyor or pneumatic system such as avacuum or suction system to collect and move material. Suitable systemsare known by those skilled in the art. In an embodiment, a plasma toelectric converter 6 such as a magnetohydrodynamic converter comprises achute or channel 6 a for the product to be conveyed into the productremover-fuel loader 13. At least one of the floor of the MHD converter6, the chute 6 a, and MHD electrode 17 may be sloped such that theproduct flow may be at least partially due to gravity flow. At least oneof the floor of the MHD converter 6, the chute 6 a, and MHD electrode 17may be mechanically agitated or vibrated to assist the flow. The flowmay be assisted by a shock wave formed by the ignition of the solidfuel. In an embodiment, at least one of the floor of the MHD converter6, the chute 6 a, and MHD electrode 17 comprises a mechanical scraper orconveyor to move product from the corresponding surface to the productremover-fuel loader 13.

In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generator further comprises avacuum pump 13 a that may remove any product oxygen and molecularhydrino gas. The pump may further comprise selective membranes, valves,sieves, cryofilters, or other means known by those skilled in the artfor separation of oxygen and hydrino gas and may additionally collectH₂O vapor, and may supply H₂O to the regeneration system 14 to berecycled in the regenerated solid fuel. In an embodiment the fuel 3comprises a fine powder that may be formed by ball milling regeneratedor reprocessed solid fuel wherein the regeneration system 14 may furthercomprise a ball mill, grinder, or other means of forming smallerparticles from larger particles such as those grinding or milling meansknown in the art. In an embodiment, a portion of the electrical poweroutput at terminals 9 is supplied to at least one of the source ofelectrical power 4, the gear (roller) drive motor 2 d, carrousel 5 ahaving a drive motor (FIG. 3), product remover-fuel loader 13, pump 13a, and regeneration system 14 to provide electrical power and energy topropagate the chemical reactions to regenerate the original solid fuelfrom the reaction products. In an embodiment, a portion of the heat fromat least one of the electrode heat exchanger 10 and MHD heat exchanger18 is input to the solid fuel regeneration system by at least one of thecoolant outlet lines 12 and 20 with coolant return circulation by atleast one of the coolant input lines 11 and 19 to provide thermal powerand energy to propagate the chemical reactions to regenerate theoriginal solid fuel from the reaction products. A portion of the outputpower from the thermal to electric converter 6 may also be used to powerthe regeneration system as well as other systems of the SF-CIHT cellgenerator.

In an exemplary embodiment, the solid fuel is regenerated by means suchas given in the present disclosure such as at least one of addition ofH₂, addition of H₂O, thermal regeneration, and electrolyticregeneration. Due to the very large energy gain of the hydrino reactionrelative to the input energy to initiate the reaction, such as 100 timesin the case of NiOOH (3.22 kJ out compared to 46 J input as given in theExemplary SF-CIHT Cell Test Results section), the products such as Ni₂O₃and NiO can be converted to the hydroxide and then the oxyhydroxide byelectrochemical reactions as well as chemical reactions as given in thepresent disclosure and also by ones known to those skilled in the art.In other embodiments, other metals such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga, Al,Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Sm, and the corresponding oxides, hydroxides,and oxyhydroxides such as those of the present disclosure may substitutefor Ni. In another embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal oxideand H₂O and the corresponding metal as a conductive matrix. The productmay be metal oxide. The solid fuel may be regenerated by hydrogenreduction of a portion of the metal oxide to the metal that is thenmixed with the oxide that has been rehydrated. Suitable metals havingoxides that can readily be reduced to the metals with mild heat such asless than 1000° C. and hydrogen are Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au,Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V,Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In another embodiment, the solid fuelcomprises (1) an oxide that is not easily reduced with H₂ and mild heatsuch as at least one of alumina, an alkaline earth oxide, and a rareearth oxide, (2) a metal having an oxide capable of being reduced to themetal with H₂ at moderate temperatures such as less than 1000° C., and(3) H₂O. An exemplary fuel is MgO+Cu+H₂O. Then, the product mixture ofthe H₂ reducible and nonreducible oxide may be treated with H₂ andheated at mild conditions such that only the reducible metal oxide isconverted to metal. This mixture may be hydrated to comprise regeneratedsolid fuel. An exemplary fuel is MgO+Cu+H₂O; wherein the product MgO+CuOundergoes H₂ reduction treatment to yield MgO+Cu that is hydrated to thesolid fuel.

In another embodiment, the oxide product such as CuO or AgO isregenerated by heating under at least one of vacuum and an inert gasstream. The temperature may be in the range of at least one of about100° C. to 3000° C., 300° C. to 2000° C., 500° C. 10 1200° C., and 500°C. to 1000° C. In an embodiment, the regeneration system 14 may furthercomprise a mill such as at least one of a ball mill and ashredding/grinding mill to mill at least one of bulk oxide and metal topowders such as fine powders such as one with particle sizes in therange of at least one of about 10 nm to 1 cm, 100 nm to 10 mm, 0.1 um to1 mm, and 1 um to 100 um (u=micro).

In another embodiment, the regeneration system may comprises anelectrolysis cell such as a molten salt electrolysis cell comprisingmetal ions wherein the metal of a metal oxide product may be plated ontothe electrolysis cell cathode by electrodeposition using systems andmethods that are well known in the art. The system may further comprisea mill or grinder to form metal particles of a desired size from theelectroplated metal. The metal may be added to the other components ofthe reaction mixture such as H₂O to form regenerated solid fuel.

In an embodiment the cell 1 of FIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B is capable ofmaintaining a vacuum or a pressure less than atmospheric. A vacuum or apressure less than atmospheric is maintained in the cell 1 by pump 13 aand may also be maintained in the connecting plasma to electricconverter 6 that receives the energetic plasma ions from the plasmasource, cell 1. In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a metal thatis substantially thermodynamically stable towards reaction with H₂O tobecome oxidized metal. In this case, the metal of the solid fuel is notoxidized during the reaction to form products. An exemplary solid fuelcomprises a mixture of the metal, the oxidized metal, and H₂O. Then, theproduct such as a mixture of the initial metal and metal oxide may beremoved by product remover-fuel loader 13 and regenerated by addition ofH₂O. Suitable metals having a substantially thermodynamicallyunfavorable reaction with H₂O may be chosen for the group of Cu, Ni, Pb,Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc,Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In other embodiments,the solid fuel comprises the H₂O unreactive metal and at least one ofH₂O, a metal oxide, hydroxide, and oxyhydroxide that may comprise thesame or at least one different metal.

In an embodiment, the methods of H₂ reduction, reduction under vacuum,and rehydration are conducted in order to regenerate the solid fuelexpeditiously, efficiently, and cost effectively as possible.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a mixture of hydroscopicmaterial comprising H₂O and a conductor. An exemplary fuel is a hydratedalkaline earth metal halide such as MgX₂ (X═F, Cl, Br, I) and aconductor such as a transition metal such as Co, Ni, Fe, or Cu.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel comprises a source of H₂O encapsulatedin a conductive jacket. The source of H₂O may comprise materials andreaction mixtures of the present disclosure. The conductive jacket maycomprise at least one of a metal, carbon, carbide, and other conductivematrix materials of the present disclosure. In another embodiment, thesolid fuel comprises a metal oxide and H₂O and a material such as thecorresponding metal as a thin foil that encapsulates the metal oxide andH₂O. Other materials such as hydroscopic materials may substitute forthe metal oxide and serve as a matrix to bind or absorb the H₂O. Theconductor-encapsulated source of H₂O may comprise a pellet. An exemplarysolid fuel pellet comprises a thin foil metal jacket such as onecomprising a transition metal, silver, or aluminum that encapsulates amaterial that is a source of H₂O or holds H₂O such as the materials andreaction mixtures of the present disclosure. Following energy release,the conductor such as the foil metal may be recovered by means such ascyclone separation, sedimentation, sifting, and other means known in theart. The foils may be formed from recovered metal stock by metalprocessing systems such as rolling or milling machinery. The jacket maybe formed by a stamping machine or a press wherein the encapsulatedmaterial may be stamped or pressed inside. In the case that theconductor such as a metal is oxidized, the metal may be regenerated byreduction of the oxide. The foil metal may be regenerated by at leastone of heating in vacuum, heating under a reducing hydrogen atmosphere,and electrolysis from an electrolyte such as a molten salt electrolyte.

In an embodiment, the solid fuel may be used once and not regenerated.Carbon comprising H and O such as steam carbon or activated carbon andH₂O wetted carbon are suitable exemplary reactants or solid fuels thatmay be consumed without regeneration.

The plasma power may be converted to electricity using plasmadynamicpower converter 6 that is based on magnetic space charge separation. Dueto their lower mass relative to positive ions, electrons arepreferentially confined to magnetic flux lines of a magnetized PDCelectrode such as a cylindrical PDC electrode or a PDC electrode in amagnetic field. Thus, electrons are restricted in mobility; whereas,positive ions are relatively free to be collisional with theintrinsically or extrinsically magnetized PDC electrode. Both electronsand positive ions are fully collisional with an unmagnetized PDCelectrode. Plasmadynamic conversion extracts power directly from thethermal and potential energy of the plasma and does not rely on plasmaflow. Instead, power extraction by PDC exploits the potential differencebetween a magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrode immersed in theplasma to drive current in an external load and, thereby, extractelectrical power directly from stored plasma thermal energy.Plasmadynamic conversion (PDC) of thermal plasma energy to electricityis achieved by inserting at least two floating conductors directly intothe body of high temperature plasma. One of these conductors ismagnetized by an external electromagnetic field or permanent magnet, orit is intrinsically magnetic. The other is unmagnetized. A potentialdifference arises due to the vast difference in charge mobility of heavypositive ions versus light electrons. This voltage is applied across anelectrical load.

In embodiments, the power system comprises additional internal orexternal electromagnets or permanent magnets or comprises multipleintrinsically magnetized and unmagnetized PDC electrodes such ascylindrical PDC electrodes such as pin PDC electrodes. The source ofuniform magnetic field B parallel to each PDC electrode may be providedby an electromagnet such as by Helmholtz coils. The electromagnet(s) maybe at least one of permanent magnets such as Halbach array magnets, anduncooled, water cooled, and superconducting electromagnets The exemplarysuperconducting magnets may comprise NbTi, NbSn, or high temperaturesuperconducting materials. The magnet current may also be supplied tothe solid fuel pellet to initiate ignition. In an embodiment, themagnetic field produce by the high current of the source of electricalpower 4 is increased by flowing through multiple turns of anelectromagnet before flowing through the solid fuel pellet. The strengthof the magnetic field B is adjusted to produce an optimal positive ionversus electron radius of gyration to maximize the power at the PDCelectrodes. In an embodiment, at least one magnetized PDC electrode isparallel to the applied magnetic field B; whereas, the at least onecorresponding counter PDC electrode is perpendicular to magnetic field Bsuch that it is unmagnetized due to its orientation relative to thedirection of B. The power can be delivered to a load through leads thatare connected to at least one counter PDC electrode. In an embodiment,the cell wall may serve as a PDC electrode. In an embodiment, the PDCelectrodes comprise a refractory metal that is stable in a hightemperature atmospheric environment such high-temperature stainlesssteels and other materials known to those skilled in the art. In anembodiment, the plasmadynamic converter further comprises a plasmaconfinement structure such as a magnetic bottle or source of solenoidalfield to confine the plasma and extract more of the power of theenergetic ions as electricity. The plasmadynamic output power isdissipated in a load.

The plasma to electric power converter 6 of FIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B mayfurther comprise a magnetohydrodynamic power converter comprising asource of magnetic flux 101 transverse to the z-axis, the direction ofion flow 102 as shown in FIG. 5. Thus, the ions have preferentialvelocity along the z-axis due to the confinement field 103 provided byHelmholtz coils 104. Thus, the ions propagate into the region of thetransverse magnetic flux. The Lorentzian force on the propagatingelectrons and ions is given by

$\begin{matrix}{F = {ev \times B}} & (196)\end{matrix}$

The force is transverse to the ion velocity and the magnetic field andin opposite directions for positive and negative ions. Thus, atransverse current forms. The source of transverse magnetic field maycomprise components that provide transverse magnetic fields of differentstrengths as a function of position along the z-axis in order tooptimize the crossed deflection (Eq. (196)) of the flowing ions havingparallel velocity dispersion.

The magnetohydrodynamic power converter shown in FIG. 5 furthercomprises at least two MHD electrodes 105 which may be transverse to themagnetic field (B) to receive the transversely Lorentzian deflected ionsthat creates a voltage across the MHD electrodes 105. The MHD power maybe dissipated in an electrical load 106. A schematic drawing of amagnetohydrodynamic power converter is shown in FIG. 6 wherein the MHDset of Helmholtz coils or set of magnets 110 provide the Lorentziandeflecting field to the flowing plasma in the magnetic expansion section120 to generate a voltage at the MHD electrodes 105 that is appliedacross the load 106. Referring to FIGS. 4A and 4B, the MHD electrodesare shown as 17. The electrodes 2 of FIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B may alsoserve as MHD electrodes with a suitably applied magnetic field in thedirection transverse to the axis connecting the electrodes 2 and thedirection of plasma expansion. The radial magnetic field due to thecurrent along the electrodes 2 from source of electrical power 4 mayprovide the Lorentzian deflection. Magnetohydrodynamic generation isdescribed by Walsh [E. M. Walsh, Energy Conversion Electromechanical,Direct, Nuclear, Ronald Press Company, NY, NY, (1967), pp. 221-248] thecomplete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

The electromagnet(s) 110 (FIG. 6) and 6 f (FIGS. 4A and 4B) may be atleast one of permanent magnets such as Halbach array magnets, anduncooled, water cooled, and superconducting electromagnets with acorresponding cryogenic management. The superconducting magnet system 6f shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B comprises (i) superconducting coils 6 b thatmay comprise superconductor wire windings of NbTi or NbSn, or a hightemperature superconductor (HTS) such as YBa₂Cu₃O₇, commonly referred toas YBCO-123 or simply YBCO, (ii) a liquid helium dewar providing liquidhelium 6 c on both sides of the coils 6 b, (iii) liquid nitrogen dewarswith liquid nitrogen 6 d on the inner and outer radii of the solenoidalmagnet wherein both the liquid helium and liquid nitrogen dewars maycomprise radiation baffles and radiation shields that may be comprisecopper and high vacuum insulation 6 e at the walls, and (iv) an inlet 6g for each magnet 6 f that may have attached a cyropump and compressorthat may be powered by the power output of the SF-CIHT cell powergenerator through output power terminal 9.

The MHD electrodes 105 of FIG. 6 or a protective barrier to the MHDelectrodes 105 may comprise an outer layer of a refractory material, amaterial that is a component of the solid fuel, and carbon such that MHDelectrode or barrier corrosion products may not become significantlydetrimental contaminants of the solid fuel or energetic material. Theplasma to electric converter such as a MHD converter may furthercomprise a MHD heat exchanger 135 that receives coolant through the MHDcoolant inlet 130 and removes power that is in the form of heat throughthe MHD coolant outlet 140 such as power contained in the expandingplasma that is not 100% converted to electricity. The heat exchanger 135may be of the coil-type as shown in FIG. 6, a water-wall type, oranother type as known by those skilled in the art. Referring to FIGS. 4Aand 4B, the MHD heat exchanger 18 receives coolant through the MHDcoolant inlet 19 and removes power that is in the form of heat throughthe MHD coolant outlet 20. This thermal power may be combined with thatfrom electrode heat exchanger 10 that flows out electrode coolant outletline 12. The heat may be applied to at least one of supplying a thermalload, the regeneration of the solid fuel by regeneration system 14 ofFIGS. 3 and 4A and 4B, and conversion to mechanical or electrical powerby systems and methods of the present disclosure.

In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter is asegmented Faraday generator. In another embodiment, the transversecurrent formed by the Lorentzian deflection of the ion flow undergoesfurther Lorentzian deflection in the direction parallel to the inputflow of ions (z-axis) to produce a Hall voltage between at least a firstMHD electrode and a second MHD electrode relatively displaced along thez-axis. Such a device is known in the art as a Hall generator embodimentof a magnetohydrodynamic power converter. A similar device with MHDelectrodes angled with respect to the z-axis in the xy-plane comprisesanother embodiment of the present invention and is called a diagonalgenerator with a “window frame” construction. In each case, the voltagemay drive a current through an electrical load. Embodiments of asegmented Faraday generator, Hall generator, and diagonal generator aregiven in Petrick [J. F. Louis, V. I. Kovbasyuk, Open-cycleMagnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Generation, M Petrick, and B. YaShumyatsky, Editors, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Ill., (1978),pp. 157-163] the complete disclosure of which is incorporated byreference.

In a further embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, theflow of ions along the z-axis with v_(∥)>>v_(⊥) may then enter acompression section comprising an increasing axial magnetic fieldgradient wherein the component of electron motion parallel to thedirection of the z-axis v_(∥) is at least partially converted into toperpendicular motion v_(⊥) due to the adiabatic invariant. An azimuthalcurrent due to v_(⊥) is formed around the z-axis. The current isdeflected radially in the plane of motion by the axial magnetic field toproduce a Hall voltage between an inner ring and an outer ring MHDelectrode of a disk generator magnetohydrodynamic power converter. Thevoltage may drive a current through an electrical load. The plasma powermay also be converted to electricity using {right arrow over (E)}×{rightarrow over (B)} direct converter 10 or other plasma to electricitydevices of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment having time varying current such as alternating current(AC) supplied to the electrodes 2 by power supply 4 and the power systemfurther comprises a plasma to electric power converter comprising a DCmagnetic field such a magnetohydrodynamic or plasmadynamic, the timevarying magnetic field due to the time varying current from source 4 maybe shielded from the DC magnetic field of the plasma to electric powerconverter by a magnetic shield such as a mu-metal shield. The plasma mayexpand out from the time varying magnetic field region through apenetration in the magnetic shield to the DC field region where thepower conversion may occur. Suitable magnetic shields are ones known tothose skilled in the art. In an embodiment having a substantially DCsource of electrical current from source 4, the substantially DCmagnetic field may be exploited for at least one purpose of plasmaconfinement for a converter such as a PDC converter, plasma to electricconversion via PDC conversion with suitably aligned PDC electrodes, andfor controlling the directionality of plasma flow. For example, thefield may cause the plasma to flow substantially linearly. The linearflow may be through a MHD plasma to electric converter. Alternatively,the DC magnetic field may be shielded from a region having anotherdesired magnetic field by a magnetic shield. The plasma may flow througha penetration in the magnetic shield to the region having the anothermagnetic field.

Each cell also outputs thermal power that may be extracted from theelectrode heat exchanger 10 by inlet and out coolant lines 11 and 12,respectively, and the MHD heat exchanger 18 by inlet and outlet coolantlines 19 and 20, respectively. The thermal power may be used as heatdirectly or converted to electricity. In embodiments, the power systemfurther comprises a thermal to electric converter. The conversion may beachieved using a conventional Rankine or Brayton power plant such as asteam plant comprising a boiler, steam turbine, and a generator or onecomprising a gas turbine such as an externally heated gas turbine and agenerator. Suitable reactants, regeneration reaction and systems, andpower plants may comprise those of the present disclosure, in my priorUS Patent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor,PCT/US08/61455, filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen CatalystReactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul. 29, 2009; HeterogeneousHydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, PCT filed Mar. 18, 2010;Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, filedPCT Mar. 17, 2011; H₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst PowerSystem, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012, and CIHT Power System,PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013 (“Mills Prior Applications”) and inmy prior publications such as R. L. Mills, M. Nansteel, W. Good, G.Zhao, “Design for a BlackLight Power Multi-Cell Thermally CoupledReactor Based on Hydrogen Catalyst Systems,” Int. J. Energy Research,Vol. 36, (2012), 778-788; doi: 10.1002/er.1834; R. L. Mills, G. Zhao, W.Good, “Continuous Thermal Power System,” Applied Energy, Vol. 88, (2011)789-798, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.08.024, and R. L. Mills, G. Zhao,K. Akhtar, Z. Chang, J. He, X. Hu, G. Wu, J. Lotoski, G. Chu, “ThermallyReversible Hydrino Catalyst Systems as a New Power Source,” Int. J.Green Energy, Vol. 8, (2011), 429-473 (“Mills Prior Thermal PowerConversion Publications”) herein incorporated by reference in theirentirety. In other embodiments, the power system comprises one of otherthermal to electric power converters known to those skilled in the artsuch as direct power converters such as thermionic and thermoelectricpower converters and other heat engines such as Stirling engines.

In an exemplary embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generator outputs 10MW of continuous power in a desired waveform such as DC or 120 V 60 HzAC as well as thermal power. The solid fuel may comprise a metal such asone of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo,Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn,Cr, and In that may not be oxidized by H2O during ignition and plasmaexpansion in a vacuum. In another embodiment, the solid fuel maycomprise a metal such as Ag whose oxide AgO is capable of being reducedby heating in vacuum. Alternatively, the solid fuel may comprise a metalsuch as Cu whose oxide CuO is capable of being reduced with heating in ahydrogen atmosphere. Consider the case that the solid fuel comprisesCu+CuO+H₂O. In an embodiment, the plasma is formed under vacuum suchthat the Cu metal does not oxidize. Then, regeneration of the fuelfollowing ignition only requires the addition of H₂O to make up thatlost to form hydrinos wherein the energy of H₂O to H₂(1/4) and 1/2O₂ is50 MJ/mole H₂O. Thus, the reaction product is rehydrated with 0.2 molesof H₂O/s. In the event that the Cu is oxidized, an exemplary mass flowrate of CuO is about 50 g CuO/s corresponding to 200 kJ/g to produce 10MJ/s or 10 kJ/ms. The CuO may be reduced with 0.625 moles H₂/s that maybe produced by electrolysis of H₂O using an electrolyzer. This requiresabout 178 kW of electrical power that is returned as heat during thecycle. In another embodiment, Cu₂O replaces CuO so that Cu does notreact with CuO to form Cu₂O. If Ag is used as the metal of the solidfuel, then no H₂ is necessary for reduction of AgO to the metal Ag, onlyheat that is returned during each cycle.

The ignition of the solid fuel to form hydrinos at very high rate isinitiated by a 20 kA power source at a repetition rate of 0.2 kHz. Thepower source may be a commercial welder source such as the MiyachiISA-500CR/IT-1320-3 or ISA-1000CR/IT-1400-3. The volume of thetransformer of the Miyachi ISA-500CR/IT-1320-3 unit is 34 liters, and itcould be miniaturized further by means such as operating its transformerat a higher frequency. The power controller volume must also beconsidered, but it is expected that the control electronics can beminiaturized such that the transformer displacement is limiting. Thispower source may also at least partially serve as the output powerconditioner. Moreover, once the system is initiated, a small portionsuch as 1% of the electrical output of the SF-CIHT cell power generatorsuch as that of the MHD or PDC converter may be sufficient to maintainthe fuel ignition. Thus, the high current power source to initiate thefuel may be essentially the cell SF-CIHT cell and power converter havingtheir respective volume contribution to the scale of the SF-CIHT cellpower generator. A charged supercapacitor having a volume of about 1liter could be used to start the unit. In another embodiment, theignition power source as well as the startup power source comprises atleast one capacitor such as a bank of low voltage, high capacitancecapacitors that supply the low voltage, high current necessary toachieve ignition. The corresponding volume of the capacitors may be lowsuch as 1.5 liters. The generator power output may be low voltage DCsuch that little or no power conditioning is required. The former may beachieved using a DC/DC converter.

Consider the exemplary case of interdigitating, 60-teeth gears such asceramic gears that are metalized on the surfaces that contact fuelduring ignition. While operating at 200 RPMs, the corresponding ignitionrate is 0.2 kHz or 5 ms per ignition. A SF-CIHT cell having thisignition system would have a displacement of about 2 liters. Consideringthat the MHD volumetric conversion density of RLN2 is 700 MW/m³[Yoshihiro Okuno, “Research activities on MHD power generation at TokyoInstitute of Technology”, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 19 Dec. 2013,http://vips.es.titech.ac.jp/pdf/090325-meeting/Okuno.pdf] and given theorders of magnitude higher ion density and supersonic particlevelocities of the hydrino driven plasma, the conversion density shouldbe at least 10 GW/m³ or 10⁷ W/liter of MHD displacement. The power ofthe exemplary SF-CIHT cell power generator is 10⁷ W; so, an estimatedMHD converter volume is 1 liter. The superconducting magnets and thedewar/cryogenic management system may displace another 6 liters. Lastly,the product recovery and regeneration systems are expected to displaceleast about 2 liters, but the displacement could be higher, more like 20liters, if the regeneration requires H2 reduction.

Consider a system comprising (1) a capacitor-based source of power tothe electrodes of 20 kA at a repetition rate of 0.2 kHz that also servesas the startup power source and has a displacement of about 1.5 liters,(2) a small portion of the electrical output of the SF-CIHT cell powergenerator such as that of the MHD or PDC converter is sufficient tomaintain the fuel ignition, (3) a SF-CIHT cell having a displacement ofabout 2 liters with an ignition system comprising interdigitating,60-teeth gears operating at 200 RPMs, (4) a MHD converter having twosections with a conservative displacement of 2 liters wherein thesuperconducting magnets and the cryogenic management system displacesthree times this volume, another 6 liters, (5) a product recovery andregeneration system having a displacement of about 2 liters wherein theproduct is rehydrated to the reactants, and (6) a direct DC output fromthe MHD converter. The total volume of the 10 MW system in thisexemplary embodiment is 1.5+2+2+6+2=13.5 liters (about 24 cm×24 cm×24 cmor about 9.4 inches×9.4 inches×9.4 inches).

In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell power generator may serve as amodular unit of a plurality of SF-CIHT cell power generators. Themodular units may be connected in parallel, series, or parallel andseries to increase the voltage, current, and power to a desired output.In an embodiment, a plurality of modular units may provide power toreplace central grid power systems. For example, a plurality of units of1 MW to 10 MW electric may replace power generation at the substation orcentral power station. SF-CIHT cell power generators may beinterconnected with each other and other power conditioning and storagesystems and power infrastructure such as that of the electrical utilitygrid using systems and methods known to those skilled in the art.

G. Applications

The SF-CIHT cell may be used to replace conventional electrical powersources with the advantage of being autonomous of the grid and fossilfuels infrastructure. Typical exemplary general applications are heating(both space and process heating), electrical power such as residential,commercial, and industrial, motive such as electric automobiles, trucks,and trains, marine such as electric ships and submarines, aviation suchas electric planes and helicopters, and aerospace such as electricsatellites. Specific exemplary applications are home and businesselectrification, lighting, electric vehicles, H₂ production throughelectrolysis of H₂O, truck refrigeration, telecommunications repeaters,salt water desalination, remote mining and smelting, electric heatingsuch as home and business heating, powering household appliances such asan alarm system, a refrigerator/freezer, a dishwasher, an oven, awasher/dryer, a lawn mover, a hedge trimmer, a snow blower and consumerelectronics such as a personal computer, a TV, a stereo, and a videoplayer. The SF-CIHT cells of appropriate variable sizes may be dedicatedpower sources for certain appliances such as a heater, a washer/dryer,or an air conditioner.

A vast number of power applications can be realized by a SF-CIHT cellthat outputs at least one of AC and DC power to a corresponding load. Aschematic drawing of systems integration for electrical SF-CIHT cellapplications 200 is shown in FIG. 7. In an embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell202 is controlled by SF-CIHT cell controller 201. The SF-CIHT cellreceives H₂O from a source 204, adds the H₂O to the regenerating fueland converts the H to hydrino with a very large release of power that isconverted to electricity. Any byproduct heat may be delivered to athermal load or removed as waste heat by a thermal cooling system 203.The output electrical power may be stored in a power storage means 205such as a battery or supercapacitor and may then flow to a powerdistribution center 206. Alternatively, the output electricity may flowdirectly to the power distribution center 206. In an embodiment havingDC output from the plasma to electric converter such as a MHD or PDCconverter, the electrical power is then condition from DC to AC by aDC/AC converter 207 or it modified to another form of DC power by aDC/DC converter 221. Thereafter, the conditioned AC or DC power flowsinto the AC 208 or DC 222 power controller and AC 209 or DC 223 powerload, respectively. Exemplary mechanical loads powered by an AC or DCmotor 215 are appliances 216, wheels 217 such as in motive powerapplications such as motorcycles, scooters, golf carts, cars, trucks,trains, tractors, and bulldozers and other excavation machinery,aviation electropropellers or electrofans 218 such as in aircraft,marine propellers 219 such as in ships and submarines, and rotatingshaft machinery 220. Alternative exemplary AC loads comprise ACtelecommunications 210, AC appliances 211, AC electronics 212, AClighting 213, and AC space and process conditioning 214 such as heatingand air conditioning. The corresponding suitable exemplary DC loadscomprise DC telecommunications 224 such as data centers, DC appliances225, DC electronics 226, DC lighting 227, and DC space and processconditioning 228 such as heating and air conditioning.

A vast number of power applications can be realized by a SF-CIHT cellthat uses at least one of the electrical and thermal power derived fromthe conversion of the H from a source such as from H₂O to hydrino, andoutputs mechanical power in the form of a spinning shaft. A schematicdrawing of systems integration for thermal and hybrid electrical-thermalSF-CIHT cell applications 300 is shown in FIG. 8. In an embodiment, theSF-CIHT cell 302 is controlled by SF-CIHT cell controller 301. TheSF-CIHT cell 302 receives H₂O from a source 303, adds the H₂O to theregenerating fuel and converts the H to hydrino with a very largerelease of plasma power that may be directly converted to electricityusing a plasma to electric converter, indirectly converted toelectricity using a thermal to electric converter, or thermal power maybe output directly. The electricity may flow to an electric heater 304that may heat an external heat exchanger 305. Alternatively, heat mayflow directly from the SF-CIHT cell 302 to the external heat exchanger305. A working gas such as air flows into an unfired turbine 306 and isheated by the hot external heat exchanger 305; thereby, it receivesthermal power from the SF-CIHT cell 302. The heated working gas performspressure-volume work on the blades of the unfired turbine 306 and causesits shaft to spin. The spinning shaft may drive a plurality of types ofmechanical loads. Suitable exemplary mechanical loads comprise wheels307 such as in motive power applications, an electrical generator 308such as in electric power generation, aviation electropropellers orelectrofans 309 such as in aircraft, marine propellers 310 such as inships and submarines, and rotating shaft machinery 311. The electricalpower from the electrical generator 308 may be used for otherapplications such as electrical motive power and stationary electricalpower. These and other applications may be achieved using the integratedsystems or a portion of the integrated systems shown in FIG. 7.

In an embodiment, the electrical power from the SF-CIHT cell is used topower an antennae in a desired frequency band that may be received by anantennae capable of receiving the transmitted power. The power may beused to operate an electronics device such as a cellular telephone of apersonal computer or entertainment system such as an MP3 player or avideo player. In another embodiment, the receiving antennae may collecttransmitted power and charge a battery to operate the electronicsdevice.

The present disclosure is further directed to a battery or fuel cellsystem that generates an electromotive force (EMF) from the catalyticreaction of hydrogen to lower energy (hydrino) states providing directconversion of the energy released from the hydrino reaction intoelectricity, the system comprising:

reactants that constitute hydrino reactants during cell operation withseparate electron flow and ion mass transport,

a cathode compartment comprising a cathode,

an anode compartment comprising an anode, and

a source of hydrogen.

Other embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to a battery orfuel cell system that generates an electromotive force (EMF) from thecatalytic reaction of hydrogen to lower energy (hydrino) statesproviding direct conversion of the energy released from the hydrinoreaction into electricity, the system comprising at least two componentschosen from: a catalyst or a source of catalyst; atomic hydrogen or asource of atomic hydrogen; reactants to form the catalyst or source ofcatalyst and atomic hydrogen or source of atomic hydrogen; one or morereactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support toenable the catalysis, wherein the battery or fuel cell system forforming hydrinos can further comprise a cathode compartment comprising acathode, an anode compartment comprising an anode, optionally a saltbridge, reactants that constitute hydrino reactants during celloperation with separate electron flow and ion mass transport, and asource of hydrogen.

In an embodiment of the present disclosure, the reaction mixtures andreactions to initiate the hydrino reaction such as the exchangereactions of the present disclosure are the basis of a fuel cell whereinelectrical power is developed by the reaction of hydrogen to formhydrinos. Due to oxidation-reduction cell half reactions, thehydrino-producing reaction mixture is constituted with the migration ofelectrons through an external circuit and ion mass transport through aseparate path to complete an electrical circuit. The overall reactionsand corresponding reaction mixtures that produce hydrinos given by thesum of the half-cell reactions may comprise the reaction types forthermal power and hydrino chemical production of the present disclosure.

In an embodiment of the present disclosure, different reactants or thesame reactants under different states or conditions such as at least oneof different temperature, pressure, and concentration are provided indifferent cell compartments that are connected by separate conduits forelectrons and ions to complete an electrical circuit between thecompartments. The potential and electrical power gain between electrodesof the separate compartments or thermal gain of the system is generateddue to the dependence of the hydrino reaction on mass flow from onecompartment to another. The mass flow provides at least one of theformation of the reaction mixture that reacts to produce hydrinos andthe conditions that permit the hydrino reaction to occur at substantialrates. Ideally, the hydrino reaction does not occur or doesn't occur atan appreciable rate in the absence of the electron flow and ion masstransport.

In another embodiment, the cell produces at least one of electrical andthermal power gain over that of an applied electrolysis power throughthe electrodes.

In an embodiment, the reactants to form hydrinos are at least one ofthermally regenerative or electrolytically regenerative.

An embodiment of the present disclosure is directed to anelectrochemical power system that generates an electromotive force (EMF)and thermal energy comprising a cathode, an anode, and reactants thatconstitute hydrino reactants during cell operation with separateelectron flow and ion mass transport, comprising at least two componentschosen from: (a) a source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising at leastone of the group of nH, OH, OH—, H₂O, H₂S, or MNH₂ wherein n is aninteger and M is alkali metal; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomichydrogen; (c) reactants to form at least one of the source of catalyst,the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen;one or more reactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; anda support. At least one of the following conditions may occur in theelectrochemical power system: (a) atomic hydrogen and the hydrogencatalyst is formed by a reaction of the reaction mixture; (b) onereactant that by virtue of it undergoing a reaction causes the catalysisto be active; and (c) the reaction to cause the catalysis reactioncomprises a reaction chosen from: (i) exothermic reactions; (ii) coupledreactions; (iii) free radical reactions; (iv) oxidation-reductionreactions; (v) exchange reactions, and (vi) getter, support, ormatrix-assisted catalysis reactions. In an embodiment, at least one of(a) different reactants or (b) the same reactants under different statesor conditions are provided in different cell compartments that areconnected by separate conduits for electrons and ions to complete anelectrical circuit between the compartments. At least one of an internalmass flow and an external electron flow may provide at least one of thefollowing conditions to occur: (a) formation of the reaction mixturethat reacts to produce hydrinos; and (b) formation of the conditionsthat permit the hydrino reaction to occur at substantial rates. In anembodiment, the reactants to form hydrinos are at least one of thermallyor electrolytically regenerative. At least one of electrical and thermalenergy output may be over that required to regenerate the reactants fromthe products.

Other embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to anelectrochemical power system that generates an electromotive force (EMF)and thermal energy comprising a cathode; an anode, and reactants thatconstitute hydrino reactants during cell operation with separateelectron flow and ion mass transport, comprising at least two componentschosen from: (a) a source of catalyst or catalyst comprising at leastone oxygen species chosen from O₂, O₃, . . . , O, O⁺, H2O, H₃O⁺, OH,OH⁺, OH⁻, HOOH, OOH⁻, O⁻, O₂ ⁻, and that undergoes an oxidative reactionwith a H species to form at least one of OH and H₂O, wherein the Hspecies comprises at least one of H₂, H, H⁺, H₂O, H₃O⁺, OH, OH⁺, OH⁻,HOOH, and OOH⁻; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c)reactants to form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst,the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen; and one or morereactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support.The source of the O species may comprise at least one compound oradmixture of compounds comprising O, O₂, air, oxides, NiO, CoO, alkalimetal oxides, Li₂O, Na₂O, K₂O, alkaline earth metal oxides, MgO, CaO,SrO, and BaO, oxides from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge,Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, and W,peroxides, alkali metal peroxides, superoxide, alkali or alkaline earthmetal superoxides, hydroxides, alkali, alkaline earth, transition metal,inner transition metal, and Group III, IV, or V, hydroxides,oxyhydroxides, AlO(OH), ScO(OH), YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH)(—MnO(OH) groutite and —MnO(OH) manganite), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH),RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH), Ni_(1/2)Co_(1/2)O(OH), andNi_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3O)(OH). The source of the H species may compriseat least one compound or admixture of compounds comprising H, a metalhydride, LaNi₅H₆, hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, H₂, a source of H₂, H₂ and ahydrogen permeable membrane, NiPt(H₂), Ni(H₂), V(H₂), Ti(H₂), Nb(H₂),Pd(H₂), PdAg(H₂), Fe(H₂), and stainless steel (SS) such as 430 SS (H2).

In another embodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises ahydrogen anode; a molten salt electrolyte comprising a hydroxide, and atleast one of an O₂ and a H₂O cathode. The hydrogen anode may comprise atleast one of a hydrogen permeable electrode such as at least one ofNiPt(H₂), Ni(H₂), V(H₂), Ti(H₂), Nb(H₂), Pd(H₂), PdAg(H₂), Fe(H₂), and430 SS(H₂), a porous electrode that may sparge Hz, and a hydride such asa hydride chosen from R—Ni, LaNi₅H₆, La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆, ZrCr₂H_(3.8),LaNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.4)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75), ZrMn_(0.5)Cr_(0.2)V_(0.1)Ni_(1.2),and other alloys capable of storing hydrogen, AB₅ (LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) orAB₂ (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type, where the “AB_(x)” designation refers tothe ratio of the A type elements (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to that of the Btype elements (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅-type:MmNi_(3.2)Co_(1.0)Mn_(0.6)Al_(0.1)Mo_(0.09) (Mm=misch metal: 25 wt % La,50 wt % Ce, 7 wt % Pr, 18 wt % Nd), AB₂-type:Ti_(0.51)Zr_(0.49)V_(0.70)Ni_(1.18)Cr_(0.12) alloys, magnesium-basedalloys, Mg_(1.9)Al_(0.1)Ni_(0.8)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.1) alloy,Mg_(0.72)Sc_(0.28)(Pd_(0.012)+Rh_(0.012)), and Mg₈₀Ti₂₀, Mg₈₀V₂₀,La_(0.8)Nd_(0.2)Ni_(2.4)Co_(2.5)Si_(0.1), LaNi_(5-x)M_(x) (M=Mn, Al),(M=Al, Si, Cu), (M=Sn), (M=Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi₄Co,MmNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.44)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75),LaNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.44)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75), MgCu₂, MgZn₂, MgNi₂, ABcompounds, TiFe, TiCo, and TiNi, AB_(n) compounds (n=5, 2, or 1), AB₃₋₄compounds, AB_(x) (A=La, Ce, Mn, Mg; B=Ni, Mn, Co, Al), ZrFe₂,Zr_(0.5)Cs_(0.5)Fe₂, Zr_(0.8)Sc_(0.2)Fe₂, YNi₅, LaNi₅,LaNi_(4.5)Co_(0.5), (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)Ni₅, Mischmetal-nickel alloy,Ti_(0.98)Zr_(0.02)V_(0.43)Fe_(0.09)Cr_(0.05)Mn_(1.5), La₂Co₁Ni₉, FeNi,and TiMn₂. The molten salt may comprise a hydroxide with at least oneother salt such as one chosen from one or more other hydroxides,halides, nitrates, sulfates, carbonates, and phosphates. The molten saltmay comprise at least one salt mixture chosen from CsNO₃—CsOH, CsOH—KOH,CsOH—LiOH, CsOH—NaOH, CsOH—RbOH, K₂CO₃—KOH, KBr—KOH, KCl—KOH, KF—KOH,KI—KOH, KNO₃—KOH, KOH—K₂SO₄, KOH—LiOH, KOH—NaOH, KOH—RbOH, Li₂CO₃—LiOH,LiBr—LiOH, LiCl—LiOH, LiF—LiOH, LiI—LiOH, LiNO₃—LiOH, LiOH—NaOH,LiOH—RbOH, Na₂CO₃—NaOH, NaBr—NaOH, NaCl—NaOH, NaF—NaOH, NaI—NaOH,NaNO₃—NaOH, NaOH—Na₂SO₄, NaOH—RbOH, RbCl—RbOH, RbNO₃—RbOH, LiOH—LiX,NaOH—NaX, KOH—KX, RbOH—RbX, CsOH—CsX, Mg(OH)₂—MgX₂, Ca(OH)₂—CaX₂,Sr(OH)₂—SrX₂, or Ba(OH)₂—BaX₂ wherein X Cl, Br, or I, and LiOH, NaOH,KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Mg(OH)₂, Ca(OH)₂, Sr(OH)₂, or Ba(OH)₂ and one or moreof AiX₃, VX₂, ZrX₂, TiX₃, MnX₂, ZnX₂, CrX₂, SnX₂, InX₃, CuX₂, NiX₂,PbX₂, SbX₃, BiX₃, CoX₂, CdX₂, GeX₃, AuX₃, IrX₃, FeX₃, HgX₂, MoX₄, OsX₄,PdX₂, ReX₃, RhX₃, RuX₃, SeX₂, AgX₂, TcX₄, TeX₄, TlX, and WX₄ whereinX═F, Cl, Br, or I. The molten salt may comprise a cation that is commonto the anions of the salt mixture electrolyte; or the anion is common tothe cations, and the hydroxide is stable to the other salts of themixture.

In another embodiment of the disclosure, the electrochemical powersystem comprises at least one of [M″(H₂)/MOH-M′halide/M′″] and[M″(H₂)/M(OH)₂-M′halide/M′″], wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earthmetal, M′ is a metal having hydroxides and oxides that are at least oneof less stable than those of alkali or alkaline earth metals or have alow reactivity with water, M″ is a hydrogen permeable metal, and M′″ isa conductor. In an embodiment, M′ is metal such as one chosen from Cu,Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se,Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. Alternatively,M and M′ may be metals such as ones independently chosen from Li, Na, K,Rb, Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb,Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc,Te, Tl, and W. Other exemplary systems comprise [M′(H₂)/MOH M″X/M′″]wherein M, M′, M″, and M′″ are metal cations or metal, X is an anionsuch as one chosen from hydroxides, halides, nitrates, sulfates,carbonates, and phosphates, and M′ is H₂ permeable. In an embodiment,the hydrogen anode comprises a metal such as at least one chosen from V,Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe,Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, and W that reacts withthe electrolyte during discharge. In another embodiment, theelectrochemical power system comprises a hydrogen source; a hydrogenanode capable of forming at least one of OH, OH⁻, and H₂O catalyst, andproviding H; a source of at least one of O₂ and H₂O; a cathode capableof reducing at least one of H₂O or O₂; an alkaline electrolyte; anoptional system capable of collection and recirculation of at least oneof H₂O vapor, N₂, and O₂, and a system to collect and recirculate H₂.

The present disclosure is further directed to an electrochemical powersystem comprising an anode comprising at least one of: a metal such asone chosen from V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, Sn, In, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co,Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, andW and a metal hydride such as one chosen from R—Ni, LaNi₅H₆,La₂Co₁Ni₉H₆, ZrCr₂H_(3.8), LaNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.4)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75),ZrMn_(0.5)Cr_(0.2)V_(0.1)Ni_(1.2), and other alloys capable of storinghydrogen such as one chosen from AB₅ (LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl) or AB₂(VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn) type, where the “AB_(x)” designation refers to theratio of the A type elements (LaCePrNd or TiZr) to that of the B typeelements (VNiCrCoMnAlSn), AB₅-type,MmNi_(3.2)Co_(1.0)Mn_(0.6)Al_(0.11)Mo_(0.09) (Mm=misch metal: 25 wt %La, 50 wt % Ce, 7 wt % Pr, 18 wt % Nd), AB₂-type:Ti_(0.51)Zr_(0.49)V_(0.70)Ni_(1.18)Cr_(0.12) alloys, magnesium-basedalloys, Mg_(1.9)Al_(0.1)Ni_(0.8)Co_(0.1)Mn_(0.1) alloy,Mg_(0.72)Sc_(0.28)(Pd_(0.012)+Rh_(0.012)), and Mg₈₀Ti₂₀, Mg₈₀V₂₀,La_(0.8)Nd_(0.2)Ni_(2.4)Co_(2.5)Si_(0.1), LaNi_(5-x)M_(x) (M=Mn, Al),(M=Al, Si, Cu), (M=Sn), (M=Al, Mn, Cu) and LaNi₄Co,MmNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.44)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75),LaNi_(3.55)Mn_(0.44)Al_(0.3)Co_(0.75), MgCu₂, MgZn₂, MgNi₂, ABcompounds, TiFe, TiCo, and TiNi, AB_(n) compounds (n=5, 2, or 1), AB₃₋₄compounds, AB_(x) (A=La, Ce, Mn, Mg; B=Ni, Mn, Co, Al), ZrFe₂,Zr_(0.5)Cs_(0.5)Fe₂, Zr_(0.8)Sc_(0.2)Fe₂, YNi₅, LaNi₅,LaNi_(4.5)Co_(0.5), (Ce, La, Nd, Pr)Ni₅, Mischmetal-nickel alloy,Ti_(0.98)Zr_(0.02)V_(0.43)Fe_(0.09)Cr_(0.05)Mn_(1.5), La₂Co₁Ni₉, FeNi,and TiMn₂; a separator; an aqueous alkaline electrolyte; at least one ofa O₂ and a H₂O reduction cathode, and at least one of air and O₂. Theelectrochemical system may further comprise an electrolysis system thatintermittently charges and discharges the cell such that there is a gainin the net energy balance. Alternatively, the electrochemical powersystem may comprise or further comprise a hydrogenation system thatregenerates the power system by rehydriding the hydride anode.

Another embodiment comprises an electrochemical power system thatgenerates an electromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprising amolten alkali metal anode; beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and amolten salt cathode comprising a hydroxide. The molten salt cathode maycomprise a eutectic mixture such as one of those of TABLE 4 and a sourceof hydrogen such as a hydrogen permeable membrane and H₂ gas. Thecatalyst or the source of catalyst may be chosen from OH, OH—, H₂O, NaH,Li, K, Rb⁺, and Cs. The molten salt cathode may comprise an alkalihydroxide. The system may further comprise a hydrogen reactor andmetal-hydroxide separator wherein the alkali metal cathode and thealkali hydroxide cathode are regenerated by hydrogenation of productoxide and separation of the resulting alkali metal and metal hydroxide.

Another embodiment of the electrochemical power system comprises ananode comprising a source of hydrogen such as one chosen from a hydrogenpermeable membrane and H₂ gas and a hydride further comprising a moltenhydroxide; beta-alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and a cathodecomprising at least one of a molten element and a molten halide salt ormixture. Suitable cathodes comprise a molten element cathode comprisingone of In, Ga, Te, Pb, Sn, Cd, Hg, P, S, I, Se, Bi, and As.Alternatively, the cathode may be a molten salt cathode comprising NaX(X is halide) and one or more of the group of NaX, AgX, AlX₃, AsX₃, AuX,AuX₃, BaX₂, BeX₂, BiX₃, CaX₂, CdX₃, CeX₃, CoX₂, CrX₂, CsX, CuX, CuX₂,EuX₃, FeX₂, FeX₃, GaX₃, GdX₃, GeX₄, HfX₄, HgX, HgX₂, InX, InX₂, InX₃,IrX, IrX₂, KX, KAgX₂, KAlX₄, K₃AlX₆, LaX₃, LiX, MgX₂, MnX₂, MoX₄, MoX₅,MoX₆, NaAlX₄, Na₃AlX₆, NbX₅, NdX₃, NiX₂, OsX₃, OsX₄, PbX₂, PdX₂, PrX₃,PtX₂, PtX₄, PuX₃, RbX, ReX₃, RhX, RhX₃, RuX₃, SbX₃, SbX₅, ScX₃, SiX₄,SnX₂, SnX₄, SrX₂, ThX₄, TiX₂, TiX₃, TlX, UX₃, UX₄, VX₄, WX₆, YX₃, ZnX₂,and ZrX₄.

Another embodiment of an electrochemical power system that generates anelectromotive force (EMF) and thermal energy comprises an anodecomprising Li; an electrolyte comprising an organic solvent and at leastone of an inorganic Li electrolyte and LiPF₆; an olefin separator, and acathode comprising at least one of an oxyhydroxide, AlO(OH), ScO(OH),YO(OH), VO(OH), CrO(OH), MnO(OH) (α-MnO(OH) groutite and γ-MnO(OH)manganite), FeO(OH), CoO(OH), NiO(OH), RhO(OH), GaO(OH), InO(OH),Ni_(1/2)Co_(1/2)O(OH), and Ni_(1/3)Co_(1/3)Mn_(1/3)O(OH).

In another embodiment, the electrochemical power system comprises ananode comprising at least one of Li, a lithium alloy, Li₃Mg, and aspecies of the Li—N—H system; a molten salt electrolyte, and a hydrogencathode comprising at least one of H₂ gas and a porous cathode, H₂ and ahydrogen permeable membrane, and one of a metal hydride, alkali,alkaline earth, transition metal, inner transition metal, and rare earthhydride.

The present disclosure is further directed to an electrochemical powersystem comprising at least one of the cells (a) through (h) comprising:

(a) (i) an anode comprising a hydrogen permeable metal and hydrogen gassuch as one chosen from NiPt(H₂), Ni(H₂), V(H₂), Ti(H₂), Fe(H₂), Nb(H₂)or a metal hydride such as one chosen from LaNi₅H₆, TiMn₂H_(x), andLa₂Ni₉CoH₆ (x is an integer); (ii) a molten electrolyte such as onechosen from MOH or M(OH)₂, or MOH or M(OH)₂ with M′X or M′X₂ wherein Mand M′ are metals such as ones independently chosen from Li, Na, K, Rb,Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba, and X is an anion such as one chosen fromhydroxides, halides, sulfates, and carbonates, and (iii) a cathodecomprising the metal that may be the same as that of the anode andfurther comprising air or O₂;

(b)(i) an anode comprising at least one metal such as one chosen fromR—Ni, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re,Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In;(ii) an electrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali hydroxide having theconcentration range of about 10 M to saturated; (iii) an olefinseparator, and (iv) a carbon cathode and further comprising air or O₂;

(c) (i) an anode comprising molten NaOH and a hydrogen permeablemembrane such as Ni and hydrogen gas; (ii) an electrolyte comprisingbeta alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and (iii) a cathode comprising amolten eutectic salt such as NaCl—MgCl₂, NaCl—CaCl₂, or MX-M′X₂′ (M isalkali, M′ is alkaline earth, and X and X′ are halide);

(d) (i) an anode comprising molten Na; (ii) an electrolyte comprisingbeta alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and (iii) a cathode comprisingmolten NaOH;

(e) (i) an anode comprising an hydride such as LaNi₅H₆; (ii) anelectrolyte comprising an aqueous alkali hydroxide having theconcentration range of about 10 M to saturated; (iii) an olefinseparator, and (iv) a carbon cathode and further comprising air or O₂;

(f) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) an olefin separator; (ii) anorganic electrolyte such as one comprising LP30 and LiPF₆, and (iv) acathode comprising an oxyhydroxide such as CoO(OH);

(g) (i) an anode comprising a lithium alloy such as Li₃Mg; (ii) a moltensalt electrolyte such as LiCl—KCl or MX-M′X′ (M and M′ are alkali, X andX′ are halide), and (iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride such asone chosen from CeH₂, LaH₂, ZrH₂, and TiH₂, and further comprisingcarbon black, and

(h) (i) an anode comprising Li; (ii) a molten salt electrolyte such asLiCl—KCl or MX-M′X′ (M and M′ are alkali, X and X′ are halide), and(iii) a cathode comprising a metal hydride such as one chosen from CeH₂,LaH₂, ZrH₂, and TiH₂, and further comprising carbon black.

The present disclosure is further directed to an electrochemical powersystem comprising at least one of the cells: [Ni(H₂)/LiOH—LiBr/Ni]wherein the hydrogen electrode designated Ni(H₂) comprises at least oneof a permeation, sparging, and intermittent electrolysis source ofhydrogen; [PtTi/H₂SO₄ (about 5 M aq) or H₃PO₄ (about 14.5 M aq)/PtTi]intermittent electrolysis, and [NaOH Ni(H₂)/BASE/NaCl MgCl₂] wherein thehydrogen electrode designated Ni(H₂) comprises a permeation source ofhydrogen. In suitable embodiments, the hydrogen electrode comprises ametal such as nickel that is prepared to have a protective oxide coatsuch as NiO. The oxide coat may be formed by anodizing or oxidation inan oxidizing atmosphere such as one comprising oxygen.

The present disclosure is further directed to an electrochemical powersystem comprising at least one of the cells (a) through (d) comprising:

(a) (i) an anode comprising a hydrogen electrode designated Ni(H₂)comprising at least one of a permeation, sparging, and intermittentelectrolysis source of hydrogen; (ii) a molten electrolyte such as onechosen from MOH or M(OH)₂, or MOH or M(OH)₂ with M′X or M′X₂ wherein Mand M′ are metals such as ones independently chosen from Li, Na, K, Rb,Cs, Mg, Ca, Sr, and Ba, and X is an anion such as one chosen fromhydroxides, halides, sulfates, and carbonates, and (iii) a cathodecomprising the metal that may be the same as that of the anode andfurther comprising air or O₂;

(b) (i) an anode comprising a hydrogen electrode designated Ni(H₂)comprises at least one of a permeation, sparging, and intermittentelectrolysis source of hydrogen; (ii) a molten electrolyte such asLiOH—LiBr, NaOH—NaBr, or NaOH—NaI, and (iii) a cathode comprising themetal that may be the same as that of the anode and further comprisingair or O₂;

(c) (i) an anode comprising a noble metal such as Pt/Ti; (ii) an aqueousacid electrolyte such as H₂SO₄ or H₃PO₄ that may be in the concentrationrange of 1 M to 10 M, and 5 M to 15 M, respectively, and (iii) a cathodecomprising the metal that may be the same as that of the anode andfurther comprising air or O₂, and

(d) (i) an anode comprising molten NaOH and a hydrogen electrodedesignated Ni(H₂) comprising a permeation source of hydrogen; (ii) anelectrolyte comprising beta alumina solid electrolyte (BASE), and (iii)a cathode comprising a molten eutectic salt such as NaCl—MgCl₂,NaCl—CaCl₂, or MX-M′X₂′ (M is alkali, M′ is alkaline earth, and X and X′are halide).

Further embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to catalystsystems such as those of the electrochemical cells comprising a hydrogencatalyst capable of causing atomic H in its n=1 state to form alower-energy state, a source of atomic hydrogen, and other speciescapable of initiating and propagating the reaction to form lower-energyhydrogen. In certain embodiments, the present disclosure is directed toa reaction mixture comprising at least one source of atomic hydrogen andat least one catalyst or source of catalyst to support the catalysis ofhydrogen to form hydrinos. The reactants and reactions disclosed hereinfor solid and liquid fuels are also reactants and reactions ofheterogeneous fuels comprising a mixture of phases. The reaction mixturecomprises at least two components chosen from a hydrogen catalyst orsource of hydrogen catalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomichydrogen, wherein at least one of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogencatalyst may be formed by a reaction of the reaction mixture. Inadditional embodiments, the reaction mixture further comprises asupport, which in certain embodiments can be electrically conductive, areductant, and an oxidant, wherein at least one reactant that by virtueof it undergoing a reaction causes the catalysis to be active. Thereactants may be regenerated for any non-hydrino product by heating.

The present disclosure is also directed to a power source comprising:

a reaction cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen;

a reaction vessel;

a vacuum pump;

a source of atomic hydrogen in communication with the reaction vessel;

a source of a hydrogen catalyst comprising a bulk material incommunication with the reaction vessel,

the source of at least one of the source of atomic hydrogen and thesource of hydrogen catalyst comprising a reaction mixture comprising atleast one reactant comprising the element or elements that form at leastone of the atomic hydrogen and the hydrogen catalyst and at least oneother element, whereby at least one of the atomic hydrogen and hydrogencatalyst is formed from the source,

at least one other reactant to cause catalysis; and

a heater for the vessel,

whereby the catalysis of atomic hydrogen releases energy in an amountgreater than about 300 kJ per mole of hydrogen.

The reaction to form hydrinos may be activated or initiated andpropagated by one or more chemical reactions. These reactions can bechosen for example from (i) hydride exchange reactions, (ii)halide-hydride exchange reactions, (iii) exothermic reactions, which incertain embodiments provide the activation energy for the hydrinoreaction, (iv) coupled reactions, which in certain embodiments providefor at least one of a source of catalyst or atomic hydrogen to supportthe hydrino reaction, (v) free radical reactions, which in certainembodiments serve as an acceptor of electrons from the catalyst duringthe hydrino reaction, (vi) oxidation-reduction reactions, which incertain embodiments, serve as an acceptor of electrons from the catalystduring the hydrino reaction, (vii) other exchange reactions such asanion exchange including halide, sulfide, hydride, arsenide, oxide,phosphide, and nitride exchange that in an embodiment, facilitate theaction of the catalyst to become ionized as it accepts energy fromatomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, and (viii) getter, support, ormatrix-assisted hydrino reactions, which may provide at least one of (a)a chemical environment for the hydrino reaction, (b) act to transferelectrons to facilitate the H catalyst function, (c) undergoe areversible phase or other physical change or change in its electronicstate, and (d) bind a lower-energy hydrogen product to increase at leastone of the extent or rate of the hydrino reaction. In certainembodiments, the electrically conductive support enables the activationreaction.

In another embodiment, the reaction to form hydrinos comprises at leastone of a hydride exchange and a halide exchange between at least twospecies such as two metals. At least one metal may be a catalyst or asource of a catalyst to form hydrinos such as an alkali metal or alkalimetal hydride. The hydride exchange may be between at least twohydrides, at least one metal and at least one hydride, at least twometal hydrides, at least one metal and at least one metal hydride, andother such combinations with the exchange between or involving two ormore species. In an embodiment, the hydride exchange forms a mixed metalhydride such as (M₁)_(x)(M₂)_(y)H_(z) wherein x,y, and z are integersand M₁ and M₂ are metals

Other embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to reactantswherein the catalyst in the activating reaction and/or the propagationreaction comprises a reaction of the catalyst or source of catalyst andsource of hydrogen with a material or compound to form an intercalationcompound wherein the reactants are regenerated by removing theintercalated species. In an embodiment, carbon may serve as the oxidantand the carbon may be regenerated from an alkali metal intercalatedcarbon for example by heating, use of displacing agent,electrolytically, or by using a solvent.

In additional embodiments, the present disclosure is directed to a powersystem comprising:

(i) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components chosenfrom: a catalyst or source of catalyst; atomic hydrogen or a source ofatomic hydrogen; reactants to form the catalyst or the source ofcatalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; one or morereactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support toenable the catalysis,

(ii) at least one thermal system for reversing an exchange reaction tothermally regenerate the fuel from the reaction products comprising aplurality of reaction vessels,

wherein regeneration reactions comprising reactions that form theinitial chemical fuel mixture from the products of the reaction of themixture are performed in at least one reaction vessel of the pluralityin conjunction with the at least one other reaction vessel undergoingpower reactions,

the heat from at least one power-producing vessel flows to at least onevessel that is undergoing regeneration to provide the energy for thethermal regeneration,

the vessels are embedded in a heat transfer medium to achieve the heatflow,

at least one vessel further comprising a vacuum pump and a source ofhydrogen, and may further comprise two chambers having a temperaturedifference maintained between a hotter chamber and a colder chamber suchthat a species preferentially accumulates in the colder chamber,

wherein a hydride reaction is performed in the colder chamber to form atleast one initial reactant that is returned to the hotter chamber,

(iii) a heat sink that accepts the heat from the power-producingreaction vessels across a thermal barrier,

and

(iv) a power conversion system that may comprise a heat engine such as aRankine or Brayton-cycle engine, a steam engine, a Stirling engine,wherein the power conversion system may comprise thermoelectric orthermionic converters. In certain embodiments, the heat sink maytransfer power to a power conversion system to produce electricity.

In certain embodiments, the power conversion system accepts the flow ofheat from the heat sink, and in certain embodiments, the heat sinkcomprises a steam generator and steam flows to a heat engine such as aturbine to produce electricity.

In additional embodiments, the present disclosure is directed to a powersystem comprising:

(i) a chemical fuel mixture comprising at least two components chosenfrom: a catalyst or a source of catalyst; atomic hydrogen or a source ofatomic hydrogen; reactants to form the catalyst or the source ofcatalyst and atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; one or morereactants to initiate the catalysis of atomic hydrogen; and a support toenable the catalysis,

(ii) a thermal system for reversing an exchange reaction to thermallyregenerate the fuel from the reaction products comprising at least onereaction vessel, wherein regeneration reactions comprising reactionsthat form the initial chemical fuel mixture from the products of thereaction of the mixture are performed in the at least one reactionvessel in conjunction with power reactions, the heat frompower-producing reactions flows to regeneration reactions to provide theenergy for the thermal regeneration, at least one vessel is insulated onone section and in contact with a thermally conductive medium on anothersection to achieve a heat gradient between the hotter and coldersections, respectively, of the vessel such that a species preferentiallyaccumulates in the colder section, at least one vessel furthercomprising a vacuum pump and a source of hydrogen, wherein a hydridereaction is performed in the colder section to form at least one initialreactant that is returned to the hotter section,

(iii) a heat sink that accepts the heat from the power-producingreactions transferred through the thermally conductive medium andoptionally across at least one thermal barrier, and

(iv) a power conversion system that may comprise a heat engine such as aRankine or Brayton-cycle engine, a steam engine, a Stirling engine,wherein the power conversion system may comprise thermoelectric orthermionic converters, wherein the conversion system accepts the flow ofheat from the heat sink.

In an embodiment, the heat sink comprises a steam generator and steamflows to a heat engine such as a turbine to produce electricity.

H. Electrochemical SF-CIHT Cell

In an electrochemical embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, at least one of anexcess voltage, current, and electrical power to those applied orgenerated internally is produced by the formation of at least one of HOHcatalyst and H by the flow of a high current wherein HOH catalyzes thereaction of H to form hydrinos with the rate greatly enhanced by thecatalyst reaction being in the presence of the flow of the high current.In another electrochemical embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell, a voltage andelectrical power is produced by the formation of at least one of HOHcatalyst, H, and a conductor capable of carrying high current by atleast one electrochemical reaction wherein HOH catalyzes the reaction ofH to form hydrinos with the rate greatly enhanced by the catalystreaction being in the presence of the flow of high current. Theelectrochemical reaction may involve an electron transfer with at leastone electrode of the cell. In an embodiment such as one shown in FIG. 1,the cell comprises a vessel 400 that is capable of containing the cellcomponents, reactants, and electrolyte, the cell components comprising acathode 405 and an anode 410, the reactants comprising a source of HOHcatalyst and a source of H, and the electrolyte comprising a source of ahighly conductive medium capable of carrying at least one of ion andelectron current. The cathode may comprise nickel oxide, lithiatednickel oxide, nickel, and others of the present disclosure. The anodemay comprise Ni, Mo, or a Mo alloy such as MoCu, MoNi, or MoCo. Thesource of HOH may be a source of H. The source of at least one of HOHcatalyst and H may be a source of at least one of oxygen and hydrogensuch as a hydrated compound or material such as a hydrated hydroscopicmaterial of the present disclosure such as a hydrated oxide or halidesuch as hydrated CuO, CoO, and MX₂ (M=Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba; X═F, Cl, Br, I),an oxide, hydroxide, oxyhydroxide, O₂, H₂O, HOOH, OOH⁻, peroxide ion,superoxide ion, hydride, and H₂. The H₂O mole % content of the hydratedcompound may be in the range of at least one of about 0.000001% to 100%,0.00001% to 100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1%to 100%, 1% to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%.In an embodiment, the electrochemical reaction forms HOH that reactswith H present in the cell. The cell may further comprise a bipolarplate 500 such as that shown in FIG. 2. The bipolar plates may bestacked and connected in series or parallel or a combination to achieveat least one of greater voltage, current, and power.

In embodiments of the present disclosure, an electrochemical powersystem can comprise a vessel, the vessel comprising at least onecathode; at least one anode; at least one electrolyte; at least tworeactants chosen from: (a) at least one source of catalyst or a catalystcomprising nascent H₂O; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen oratomic hydrogen; and (c) at least one of a source of a conductor, asource of a conductive matrix, a conductor, and a conductive matrix; andat least one current source to produce a current comprising at least oneof a high ion and electron current chosen from an internal currentsource and an external current source; wherein the electrochemical powersystem generates at least one of electricity and thermal energy. Incertain embodiments, the combination of the cathode, anode, reactants,and external current source permit the catalysis of atomic hydrogen toform hydrinos to propagate that maintains a contribution to the currentbetween each cathode and corresponding anode. In additional embodiments,the reaction of the catalyst with atomic H can cause a decrease in thecell voltage as the cell current increases.

In an embodiment, the electrolyte may comprise at least one of thesource of oxygen, the source of hydrogen, H₂O, the source of HOHcatalyst, and the source of H. The electrolyte may comprise a moltenelectrolyte such as those of the present disclosure such as a mixture ofa molten hydroxide and a molten halide such as a mixture of an alkalihydroxide and an alkali halide such as LiOH—LiBr. The electrolyte mayfurther comprise a matrix material such as one of those of the presentdisclosure such as an oxide such as an alkaline earth oxide such as MgO.The electrolyte may further comprise an additive such as those of thepresent disclosure. Alternatively, the electrolyte may comprise anaqueous electrolyte such as one comprising a base such as a hydroxidesuch as an alkali hydroxide such as KOH or an acid such as HCl, H₃PO₄,or H₂SO₄. In addition, the electrolyte can comprise at least oneelectrolyte chosen from: at least one aqueous alkali metal hydroxide;saturated aqueous KOH; at least one molten hydroxide; at least oneeutectic salt mixture; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and atleast one other compound; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide anda salt; at least one mixture of a molten hydroxide and halide salt; atleast one mixture of an alkaline hydroxide and an alkaline halide; atleast one of the group of molten LiOH—LiBr, LiOH—NaOH, LiOH—LiBr—NaOH,LiOH—LiX—NaOH, LiOH—LiX, NaOH—NaBr, NaOH—NaI, NaOH—NaX, and KOH—KX,wherein X represents a halide); at least one acid, and at least one ofHCl, H₃PO₄, and H₂SO₄.

In an embodiment, at least one of the source of nascent H2O catalyst andthe source of atomic hydrogen can comprise: (a) at least one source ofH2O; (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source ofhydrogen. In further embodiments, the electrochemical power system canfurther comprise one or more solid fuel reactants to form at least oneof the conductor, source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomichydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen. In additional embodiments, thereactants can undergo reaction during cell operation with separateelectron flow in an external circuit and electron flow and ion masstransport within the reactants. In embodiments, at least one of anexcess voltage, current, and electrical power to those applied orgenerated internally can be produced by the formation of at least one ofHOH catalyst and H by the flow of a high current. In additionalembodiments, a voltage and electrical power can be produced by theformation of at least one of HOH catalyst, H, and a conductor capable ofcarrying high current by at least one electrochemical reaction and, infurther embodiments, a high current enhances the rate of reaction of thecatalyst with atomic H. In embodiments, the electrochemical reaction caninvolve an electron transfer with at least one electrode of the cell.

In an embodiment, at least one of a high current and a high currentdensity is applied to cause the hydrino reaction to occur with a highrate. The source of at least one of a high current and a high currentdensity may be at least one of an external and an internal source. Atleast one of the internal and external current source comprises avoltage selected to cause a DC, AC, or an AC-DC mixture of current thatis in the range of at least one of 1 A to 50 kA, 10 A to 10 kA, and 10 Ato 1 kA and a DC or peak AC current density in the range of at least oneof 1 A/cm² to 50 kA/cm², 10 A/cm² to 10 kA/cm², and 10 A/cm² to 1kA/cm². The voltage may be determined by the conductivity of electrolytewherein the voltage is given by the desired current times the resistanceof the electrolyte that may comprise a conductor. The DC or peak ACvoltage may be in at least one range chosen from about 0.1 V to 100 V,0.1 V to 10 V, and 1 V to 5 V, and the AC frequency may be in the rangeof about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hzto 10 kHz. In an embodiment, the electrodes may be very closely spacedsuch that an electrical discharge arc may form between them. In anembodiment, the resistance of the electrolyte is in at least one rangechosen from about 0.001milliohm to 10 ohm and 0.01 ohm to 1 ohm, and theresistance of the electrolyte per electrode area active to form hydrinosis in at least one range chosen from about 0.001 milliohm/cm² to 10ohm/cm² and 0.01 ohm/cm² to 1 ohm/cm².

In an embodiment, the current comprising at least one of ion andelectron current is carried by the electrolyte. Current may be carriedby electrochemical reactions between at least one of the electrolyte,reactants, and the electrodes. In certain embodiments, the at least onespecies of the electrolyte may optionally comprise at least onereactant. The current may flow through a conductor of the electrolyte.The conductor may form by a reduction reaction at an electrode such asthe cathode. The electrolyte may comprise metal ions that are reduced toform metal that is conductive. In embodiments, the metal ions can bereduced during current flow to form a conductive metal. In otherembodiments, the current carrying reduction electrochemical reaction isat least one of metal ion to a metal; H₂O+O₂ to OH⁻; a metal oxide+H₂Oto at least one of the metal oxyhydroxide and metal hydroxide and OH⁻,and a metal oxyhydroxide+H₂O to OH⁻, wherein the ion current carrier isOH⁻. In embodiments, the anode can comprise H, H₂O can be formed byoxidation of the OH⁻ and reaction with H at the anode, and/or the sourceof H at the anode comprises at least one of a metal hydride, LaNi₅H_(x),H₂ formed by electrolysis on the anode, H₂ supplied as a gas, and H₂supplied through a hydrogen permeable membrane.

In an embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and reactants comprisereactants that constitute hydrino reactants of the present disclosurecomprising at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprisingnascent H₂O, at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen,and further comprising at least one of a conductor and a conductivematrix. In an embodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and reactantscomprise at least one of a source of a solid fuel or energetic materialof the present disclosure and a solid fuel or energetic material of thepresent disclosure. In an embodiment, exemplary solid fuels comprise asource of H₂O and a conductive matrix to form at least one of the sourceof catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomichydrogen. The H₂O source may comprise at least one of bulk H₂O, a stateother than bulk H₂O, a compound or compounds that undergo at least oneof react to form H₂O and release bound H₂O. The bound H₂O may comprise acompound that interacts with H₂O wherein the H₂O is in a state of atleast one of absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters ofhydration. The reactants may comprise a conductor and one or morecompounds or materials that undergo at least one of release of bulk H₂O,absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration, andhave H₂O as a reaction product. Further exemplary solid fuels are ahydrated hydroscopic material and a conductor; hydrated carbon; hydratedcarbon and a metal; a mixture of a metal oxide, a metal or carbon, andH₂O; and a mixture of a metal halide, a metal or carbon, and H₂O. Themetal and metal oxide may comprise a transition metal such as Co, Fe,Ni, and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metalsuch as Mg or Ca and a halide such as F, Cl, Br or I. The metal may havea thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H₂O such as at least oneof the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os,Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr,and In wherein the reactants may be regenerated by addition of H₂O. Thereactants that constitute hydrino reactants may comprise at least one ofa slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and a compound.

In additional embodiments of the present disclosure the reactants toform at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source ofatomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen can comprise at least one of:H₂O and the source of H₂O; O₂, H₂O, HOOH, OOH⁻, peroxide ion, superoxideion, hydride, H₂, a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, acompound that comprises oxygen, a hydrated compound, a hydrated compoundselected from the group of at least one of a halide, an oxide, anoxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, a compound that comprises oxygen, and aconductive matrix. As exemplary embodiments, the oxyhydroxide cancomprise at least one from the group of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH,FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, andSmOOH; the oxide can comprise at least one from the group of CuO, Cu₂O,CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, FeO, Fe₂O₃, NiO, and Ni₂O₃; the hydroxide cancomprise at least one from the group of Cu(OH)₂, Co(OH)₂, Co(OH)₃,Fe(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₃, and Ni(OH)₂; the compound that comprises oxygen cancomprise at least one from the group of a sulfate, phosphate, nitrate,carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate,perchlorate, perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃, MXO₄ (M=metal such asalkali metal such as Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X═F, Br, Cl, I), cobaltmagnesium oxide, nickel magnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O,alkali metal oxide, alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄, ZnO, MgO,CaO, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂, SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO, Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO,VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃, P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂,TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, FeO, Fe₂O₃,NiO, Ni₂O₃, rare earth oxide, CeO₂, La₂O₃, an oxyhydroxide, TiOOH,GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH,MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, and the conductive matrix can comprise at leastone from the group of a metal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride,carbonitrile such as TiCN, or nitrile.

In embodiments, the reactants constitute hydrino reactants comprising amixture of a metal, a metal halide, and H₂O. In other embodiments, thereactants constitute hydrino reactants comprising a mixture of atransition metal, an alkaline earth metal halide, and H₂O. In furtherembodiments, the reactants constitute hydrino reactants comprising amixture of a conductor, hydroscopic materials, and H₂O. Non-limitingexamples of the conductor include a metal powder or carbon powder, andnon-limiting examples of the hydroscopic material include at least oneof the group of lithium bromide, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride,zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassium phosphate, carnallite suchas KMgCl₃.6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate, potassium hydroxide andsodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric and phosphoric acids,cellulose fibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, methanol,diesel fuel, methamphetamine, a fertilizer chemical, a salt, adesiccant, silica, activated charcoal, calcium sulfate, calciumchloride, a molecular sieves, a zeolite, a deliquescent material, zincchloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and adeliquescent salt. In certain embodiments of the present disclosure, theelectrochemical power system can comprise a mixture of a conductor, ahydroscopic material, and H₂O wherein the ranges of relative molaramounts of (metal), (hydroscopic material), (H₂O) are at least one ofabout (0.000001 to 100000 metal), (0.000001 to 100000 hydroscopicmaterial), (0.000001 to 100000 H₂O); about (0.00001 to 10000 metal),(0.00001 to 10000 hydroscopic material), (0.00001 to 10000 H₂O); about(0.0001 to 1000 metal), (0.0001 to 1000 hydroscopic material), (0.0001to 1000 H₂O); about (0.001 to 100 metal), (0.001 to 100 hydroscopicmaterial), (0.001 to 100 H₂O); about (0.01 to 100 metal), (0.01 to 100hydroscopic material), (0.01 to 100 H₂O); about (0.1 to 10 metal), (0.1to 10 hydroscopic material), (0.1 to 10 H₂O); and about (0.5 to 1metal), (0.5 to 1 hydroscopic material), (0.5 to 1 H₂O).

Exemplary cathode materials that can undergo a reduction reaction togive rise to an ion current are metal oxyhydroxides, metal oxides, metalions, oxygen, and a mixture of oxygen and H₂O. At least one of the metaloxide, metal oxyhydroxide, and metal hydroxide may comprise a transitionmetal. The metal oxide, metal oxyhydroxide, and metal hydroxide maycomprise one of the present disclosure. Exemplary current carryingreduction electrochemical reactions are metal ion to a metal; H₂O+O₂ toOH⁻; a metal oxide+H₂O to at least one of the metal oxyhydroxide andmetal hydroxide and OH⁻, and a metal oxyhydroxide+H₂O to OH⁻. The ioncurrent carrier may be OH⁻, and the anode may comprise H to form H₂O byoxidation of the OH⁻. The source of H at the anode may comprise at leastone of a metal hydride such as LaNi₅H_(x), H₂ formed by electrolysis onthe anode, H₂ supplied as a gas, and H₂ through a hydrogen permeablemembrane. In other embodiments, the ion current is carried by at leastone of ions comprising oxygen, of ions comprising oxygen and hydrogen,OH⁻, OOH⁻, O²⁻, and O₂ ²⁻ wherein the ion carrying reactions may bethose given by Eqs. (61-72).

In an embodiment, the electrochemical power system of the presentdisclosure can comprise at least one of (a) a porous electrode, (b) agas diffusion electrode, (c) a hydrogen permeable anode, wherein atleast one of oxygen and H₂O is supplied to the cathode and H₂ issupplied to the anode, (d) a cathode comprising at least one of anoxyhydroxide, an oxide, nickel oxide, lithiated nickel oxide, nickel,and (e) an anode comprising Ni, Mo, or a Mo alloy such as MoCu, MoNi, orMoCo, and a hydride. In further embodiments, wherein the hydride can beLaNi₅H_(x) and the cathode can be at least one of TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH,InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH,SmOOH, and MnO₂. In other embodiments, the electrochemical power systemof the present disclosure can comprise at least one gas supply systemcomprising a manifold, a gas line, and at least one gas channelconnected to the electrode.

In an embodiment, the cell produces a current in excess to that applieddue to the power released with the formation of hydrinos. In anembodiment, the formation of hydrinos from H releases energy that causesionization of at least one species such as at least one of thereactants, electrolyte, and electrodes. The ionization may give rise toan excess current beyond that applied. Due to the higher mobility of theelectrons compared to the ions, the ionized species gives rise to acontribution to the current in the direction of the applied current. Inan embodiment, the applied current may be due to at least one of anexternal voltage and current source or an internally electrochemicallyproduced current. In an exemplary embodiment comprising the 2 cm OD cell[Ni, Ni powder+LaNi₅H_(x)/KOH (saturated aqueous)/Ni powder+NiOOH, Ni],(50 wt % Ni powder was mixed with the cathode and anode materials, andthe electrode current collectors were Ni) the cell was run with avoltage-limited, high current DC power supply (Kepco ATE6-100M, 0-6 V,0-100 A). The voltage limit was set at 4 V. The cell current wasinitially 20 A at the 3.8 V, but increased to 100 A as the voltagedropped to 2.25 V. The cell showed anomalous negative resistance, adecreasing voltage at higher current, which is characteristic of andidentifies the electrical power contribution from the formation ofhydrinos. The cell temperature also increased above that expected due tothe thermal energy release from the hydrino reaction.

In an embodiment, at least one magnet is applied to the cell to cause aLorentzian deflection of electrons created by the energy released fromthe catalysis of H to hydrinos. In an embodiment, the electrons arepreferentially deflected or biased to the negative electrode and thepositive ions are preferentially deflected or biased to the positiveelectrode. In an embodiment, the preferential deflection is due to thegreater energy release with the deflection in the direction of currentflow.

In an embodiment, the electrochemical SF-CIHT cell further comprises anelectrolysis system. Electrolysis may be intermittently applied toregenerate at least one of the electrolyte, reactants, and electrodes.The system may be supplied reactants that are consumed during theformation of hydrinos and power. The supplied reactants may replace atleast one of the source of HOH and H. Suitable exemplary suppliedreactants are one or more of the group of H₂O, H₂, and O₂. In anembodiment, at least one of the electrolyte and solid fuel mayregenerated in situ or may be supplied to the cell intermittently orcontinuously wherein the products of the cell reactions may beregenerated into the initial reactants. The regeneration may be bythermal regeneration, H₂ reduction, rehydration, or any of the methodsof the present disclosure or disclosed in my Prior Applications that areherein incorporated by reference. The electrodes may be regenerated byelectrolysis of the anode materials such as a metal such as Ni, Mo, of aMo alloy that may involve a regeneration scheme of reaction(s) such asthose of the present disclosure such as those of Eqs. (53-60)

In an embodiment, the ion carrier may comprise H⁻ and the electrolytemay be capable of conducting hydride ions such as a molten halide saltmixture such as a molten alkali halide salt mixture such as LiCl—KCl.The catalyst may comprise at least one H atom according to the reactionsof Eqs. (6-9) and (24-31). The cell may comprise a hydrogen permeablemembrane cathode supplied with hydrogen gas and an anode comprising areactant capable of forming a hydride such as a metal such as an alkalimetal such as Li. The metal may be inside of a hydrogen permeable anode.Exemplary hydrogen permeable metals are Ni, V, Ti, Nb, and Ta. The cellsand methods of hydride ion conducting cells to form power by forminghydrinos is disclosed herein and in Mills Prior Applications such asHydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008;Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul.29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828,PCT filed Mar. 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System,PCT/US11/28889, filed PCT Mar. 17, 2011; H₂O-Based ElectrochemicalHydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012, andCIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013 hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety. In an embodiment, powerfrom an external or internal source is applied to the cell to dischargeit, and excess power is formed by forming hydrinos. The current may behigh such as one of those of the present disclosure. In an embodiment,the cell is intermittently run in reverse to recharge it. In anembodiment, the metal is regenerated in the anode, and the hydrogen gasis regenerated in the cathode.

Heat as well as electricity is produced by the electrochemicalembodiment of the SF-CIHT cell. The electrochemical embodiment of the SFCIHT cell further comprises a heat exchanger that may be on an exteriorcell surface to remove heat produced by the cell and deliver it to aload. In another embodiment, the SF CIHT cell comprises a boiler. Theheat exchanger or boiler comprises a coolant input to receive coolcoolant from a load and a coolant outlet to supply or return hot coolantto the load. The heat may be used directly or converted to mechanical orelectrical power using converters known by those skilled in the art suchas a heat engine such as a steam engine or steam or gas turbine andgenerator, a Rankine or Brayton-cycle engine, or a Stirling engine. Forpower conversion, the thermal output from each electrochemicalembodiment of the SF CIHT cell may flow out the coolant outlet line toany of the converters of thermal energy to mechanical or electricalpower described in Mills Prior Publications as well as converters knownto those skilled in the art such as a heat engine, steam or gas turbinesystem, Stirling engine, or thermionic or thermoelectric converter. Inan embodiment, the electrochemical SF-CIHT cell is operated as anelectrolysis cell. Hydrogen may be produced at the negative electrodeand oxygen may be produced at the positive electrode. The cell mayconsume H₂O. The H₂O may be electrolyzed into H₂ and O₂. The H₂O may besupplied to the cell from a source such as a tank or from a H₂O vaporsupply or from the atmosphere. The formation of hydrinos may produceheat that may be used directly or converted to mechanical or electricalpower.

I. Internal SF-CIHT Cell Engine

In a mechanical embodiment of the SF-CIHT cell comprising a SF-CIHT cellengine, at least one of heat and gas pressure is generated by theignition of a solid fuel or energetic material of the presentdisclosure. The ignition is achieved by the formation of at least one ofHOH catalyst and H by the flow of an applied high current wherein HOHcatalyzes the reaction of H to form hydrinos with the rate greatlyenhanced by the catalyst reaction being in the presence of the flow ofthe high current. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure aredirected to a mechanical power system comprising: at least one pistoncylinder of an internal combustion-type engine; a fuel comprising: (a)at least one source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H₂O;(b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; (c) atleast one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one fuelinlet with at least one valve; at least one exhaust outlet with at leastone valve; at least one piston; at least one crankshaft; a high currentsource, and at least two electrodes that confine and conduct a highcurrent through the fuel.

The power system can comprises at least one piston cylinder capable of apressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and belowatmospheric during different phases of a reciprocating cycle, a highpower source capable of high current and optionally high voltage, asource of solid fuel or energetic material of the present disclosure, atleast one fuel inlet with at least one valve, and at least one exhaustoutlet with at least one valve, at least one piston, at least one shaftsuch as a crankshaft to transfer the mechanical motion of the at leastone piston to a mechanical load, and at least two electrodes thatconfine and conduct a high current through the fuel to cause it toignite wherein at least one of the piton or cylinder may serve as acounter electrode for the other electrode. In addition, the power systemcan further comprise at least one brush to provide electrical contactbetween the at least one piston and the high current source In anembodiment, the internal SF-CIHT cell engine further comprises agenerator that is powered by the mechanical power of the engine togenerate electrical power to power the high current source that in turnprovides high current flow through the solid fuel to cause it to ignite.The generator may be spun by the shaft such as the engine crankshaft orotherwise actuated with gears or other mechanical coupling machinery tothe crankshaft. The engine may further comprise a fuel regenerator toconvert or regenerate the products back into the initial solid fuel.

The engine piston(s) may undergo a reciprocating motion. The engine maycomprise a two-stroke cycle comprising the steps of induction andcompression, and ignition and exhaust or a four-stroke cycle comprisingthe individual steps of power, exhaust, intake, and compression. Otherengines known to those skilled in the art such as rotary engines arewithin the scope of the present disclosure. The solid fuel flows intothe piston chamber with the piston displaced. During the power stroke ofa reciprocating cycle, the compressed fuel is ignited with a highcurrent corresponding to a high hydrino transition rate that causes theproducts and any additional added gas or source of gas to be heated andperform pressure-volume (PV) work on the piston causing it to move inthe cylinder and turn a shaft such as a crankshaft. Fuel flows into thecylinder when the piston is displaced, the fuel becomes compressed bythe returning piston before ignition, and products are exhausted afterthe power step by the returning displaced piston. Alternatively, exhaustgases are vented while the fuel flows into the cylinder, and the pistoncompresses it before another ignition. The exhausted product may flow tothe regeneration system to be regenerated into the initial fuel. Anyadditional gas or source of gas to assist in performance of conversionof the heat from the ignition of the solid fuel into PV work may berecovered, regenerated, and recycled.

In an embodiment, the fuel comprises reactants that constitute hydrinoreactants of the present disclosure comprising at least one source ofcatalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H₂O, at least one source ofatomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least oneof a conductor and a conductive matrix. In an embodiment, the fuelcomprises at least one of a source of a solid fuel or energetic materialof the present disclosure and a solid fuel or energetic material of thepresent disclosure. In an embodiment, exemplary solid fuels comprise asource of H₂O and a conductive matrix to form at least one of the sourceof catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, and the atomichydrogen. The H₂O source may comprise at least one of bulk H₂O, a stateother than bulk H₂O, a compound or compounds that undergo at least oneof react to form H₂O and release bound H₂O. The bound H₂O may comprise acompound that interacts with H₂O wherein the H₂O is in a state of atleast one of absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters ofhydration. The reactants may comprise a conductor and one or morecompounds or materials that undergo at least one of release of bulk H₂O,absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration, andhave H₂O as a reaction product. Further exemplary solid fuels are ahydrated hydroscopic material and a conductor; hydrated carbon; hydratedcarbon and a metal; a mixture of a metal oxide, a metal or carbon, andH₂O; and a mixture of a metal halide, a metal or carbon, and H₂O. Themetal and metal oxide may comprise a transition metal such as Co, Fe,Ni, and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metalsuch as Mg or Ca and a halide such as F, Cl, Br or I. The metal may havea thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H₂O such as at least oneof the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os,Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr,and In wherein the reactants may be regenerated by addition of H₂O. Thereactants that constitute hydrino reactants may comprise at least one ofa slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and a compound.

In certain embodiments, at least one of the source of nascent H₂Ocatalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen can comprise at least one of:(a) at least one source of H₂O; (b) at least one source of oxygen, and(c) at least one source of hydrogen. In additional embodiments, the fuelcan form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, thesource of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen comprise at least oneof (a) H₂O and the source of H₂O; (b) O₂, H₂O, HOOH, OOH⁻, peroxide ion,superoxide ion, hydride, H₂, a halide, an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, ahydroxide, a compound that comprises oxygen, a hydrated compound, ahydrated compound selected from the group of at least one of a halide,an oxide, an oxyhydroxide, a hydroxide, a compound that comprisesoxygen, and (c) a conductive matrix. Non-limiting examples ofoxyhydroxide include at least one group chosen from TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH,InOOH, FeOOH, GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH,and SmOOH; non-limiting examples of the oxide include at least one groupchosen from CuO, Cu₂O, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, FeO, Fe₂O₃, NiO, and Ni₂O₃;non-limiting examples of the hydroxide include at least one group chosenfrom Cu(OH)₂, Co(OH)₂, Co(OH)₃, Fe(OH)₂, Fe(OH)₃, and Ni(OH)₂;non-limiting examples of the compound that comprises oxygen include atleast one group chosen from a sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, carbonate,hydrogen carbonate, chromate, pyrophosphate, persulfate, perchlorate,perbromate, and periodate, MXO₃, MXO₄ (M=metal such as alkali metal suchas Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; X═F, Br, Cl, I), cobalt magnesium oxide, nickelmagnesium oxide, copper magnesium oxide, Li₂O, alkali metal oxide,alkaline earth metal oxide, CuO, CrO₄, ZnO, MgO, CaO, MoO₂, TiO₂, ZrO₂,SiO₂, Al₂O₃, NiO, FeO, Fe₂O₃, TaO₂, Ta₂O₅, VO, VO₂, V₂O₃, V₂O₅, P₂O₃,P₂O₅, B₂O₃, NbO, NbO₂, Nb₂O₅, SeO₂, SeO₃, TeO₂, TeO₃, WO₂, WO₃, Cr₃O₄,Cr₂O₃, CrO₂, CrO₃, CoO, Co₂O₃, Co₃O₄, FeO, Fe₂O₃, NiO, Ni₂O₃, rare earthoxide, CeO₂, La₂O₃, an oxyhydroxide, TiOOH, GdOOH, CoOOH, InOOH, FeOOH,GaOOH, NiOOH, AlOOH, CrOOH, MoOOH, CuOOH, MnOOH, ZnOOH, and SmOOH, andthe conductive matrix can comprise at least one from the group of ametal powder, carbon, carbide, boride, nitride, carbonitrile such asTiCN, or nitrile.

In certain embodiments, the the fuel can comprise (a) a mixture of ametal, its metal oxide, and H₂O wherein the reaction of the metal withH₂O is not thermodynamically favorable; (b) a mixture of a metal, ametal halide, and H₂O wherein the reaction of the metal with H₂O is notthermodynamically favorable; and (c) a mixture of a transition metal, analkaline earth metal halide, and H₂O wherein the reaction of the metalwith H₂O is not thermodynamically favorable. In additional embodiments,the metal having a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H₂O ischosen from at least one of of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir,Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr,Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In further embodiments, the fuel can comprise amixture of a conductor, a hydroscopic material, and H₂O. In suchembodiments, the conductor can comprise a metal powder or carbon powderwherein the reaction of the metal or carbon with H₂O is notthermodynamically favorable, and the hydroscopic material can compriseat least one of the group of lithium bromide, calcium chloride,magnesium chloride, zinc chloride, potassium carbonate, potassiumphosphate, carnallite such as KMgCl₃.6(H₂O), ferric ammonium citrate,potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide and concentrated sulfuric andphosphoric acids, cellulose fibers, sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol,ethanol, methanol, diesel fuel, methamphetamine, a fertilizer chemical,a salt, a desiccant, silica, activated charcoal, calcium sulfate,calcium chloride, a molecular sieves, a zeolite, a deliquescentmaterial, zinc chloride, calcium chloride, potassium hydroxide, sodiumhydroxide and a deliquescent salt. In certain embodiments, the fuel cancomprise a mixture of a conductor, hydroscopic materials, and H₂Owherein the ranges of relative molar amounts of (metal), (hydroscopicmaterial), (H₂O) are at least one of about (0.000001 to 100000 metal),(0.000001 to 100000 hydroscopic material), (0.000001 to 100000 H₂O);(0.00001 to 10000 metal), (0.00001 to 10000 hydroscopic material),(0.00001 to 10000 H₂O); (0.0001 to 1000 metal), (0.0001 to 1000hydroscopic material), (0.0001 to 1000 H₂O); (0.001 to 100 metal),(0.001 to 100 hydroscopic material), (0.001 to 100 H₂O); (0.01 to 100metal), (0.01 to 100 hydroscopic material), (0.01 to 100 H₂O); (0.1 to10 metal), (0.1 to 10 hydroscopic material), (0.1 to 10 H₂O); and (0.5to 1 metal), (0.5 to 1 hydroscopic material), (0.5 to 1 H₂O).

In additional embodiments, the fuel can comprise a mixture of a metal,its metal oxide, and H₂O wherein the metal oxide is capable of H₂reduction at a temperature less than 1000° C. In embodiments, the metalhaving an oxide capable of being reduced to the metal with H₂ at atemperature less than 1000° C. can be chosen from at least one of of Cu,Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se,Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In.

In other embodiments, the fuel can comprise a mixture of an oxide thatis not easily reduced with H₂ and mild heat; a metal having an oxidecapable of being reduced to the metal with H₂ at a temperature less than1000° C., and H₂O. In embodiments, the metal oxide that is not easilyreduced with H₂, and mild heat can comprise at least one of alumina, analkaline earth oxide, and a rare earth oxide. In further embodiments,the fuel can comprise carbon or activated carbon and H₂O wherein themixture is regenerated by rehydration comprising addition of H₂O.

In certain embodiments, the H₂O mole % content in the power system canbe in the range of at least one of about 0.000001% to 100%, 0.00001% to100%, 0.0001% to 100%, 0.001% to 100%, 0.01% to 100%, 0.1% to 100%, 1%to 100%, 10% to 100%, 0.1% to 50%, 1% to 25%, and 1% to 10%.

In an embodiment, the cell such as the ones shown in FIGS. 3 and 4A and4B comprises at least one cylinder of an internal combustion-type engineas given in Mills Prior Thermal Power Conversion Publications, MillsPrior Plasma Power Conversion Publications, and Mills PriorApplications. An internal SF-CIHT cell engine shown in FIG. 9 comprisesat least one cylinder 52 that receives fuel from a fuel source 63through a fuel inlet 56 and an inlet valve assembly 60 that opens apassage to the cylinder chamber during a fuel intake phase of areciprocating cycle. Gases such as air or an inert gas such as a noblegas such as argon that may be recycled may also flow into the cylinder52 by means such as through the fuel inlet 56 and a inlet valve assembly60. In another embodiment, a source of gas such as a fluid capable ofbeing vaporized during power generation such as H₂O is injected. Thefluid such as H₂O may at least partially comprise the fuel such as asource of catalyst and H.

Each cylinder 52 comprises at least two electrodes 54 and at least oneof 62 and 52 connected by electrical connections 65 to a high-currentpower supply 58 such as one that can provide about 1 kA to 100 kA toprovide a high current to ignite the solid fuel to form hydrinos at avery high rate as given in the present disclosure. In an embodiment,fuel flows in between at the least two electrodes and is ignited to formhydrinos with the release of thermal energy that causes at least one ofthe release of hot gases and heating and expansion of gases and anyfluid that may be vaporized in the cylinder. In another embodiment, theelectrodes cause an arc plasma in H₂O or a gas comprising H₂O to igniteH₂O to form hydrinos as given in the present disclosure. In anembodiment, one electrode comprises an isolated feed-through and theother comprises at least one of the piston and the cylinder. Electricalconnections 65 may be made directly between the high current powersupply 58 and the feed-through 54 and cylinder electrodes 52. In anembodiment wherein the piston 62 is the counter electrode, the cylinder52 is nonconducting. An exemplary non-conducting cylinder comprises aceramic. The electrical contact from the high current power supply 58 tothe piston electrode 62 may be through a brush 64 such as one thatcontacts the shaft 51 that is electrically connected to the pistonelectrode 62. Contact between the conductive fuel 61 and thefeed-through electrode 54 and at least one of the piston 62 and cylinderelectrode 52 may be made when the fuel is compressed during thecompression phase or stroke of the reciprocating cycle. Upon fuelignition of the compressed H₂O or solid fuel 53 to form hydrinos at avery high rate, the hot cylinder gases expand to perform pressure-volumework. The heated cylinder gases exert pressure on the head of the piston62 to cause it to move corresponding to positive displacement during thepower phase. The action of the piston 62 is transferred to a crankshaft51 that spins, and this action is applied to a mechanical load such asthose known in the art. In an embodiment, the engine further comprisesan internal generator 66 connected to shaft 51 with the outputelectricity connected to the high power supply 58 by generator powerconnector 67. Thus, a portion of the mechanical energy is used toprovide the high power to maintain ignition while the remainder isapplied to other mechanical loads such as spinning at least one of ashaft, wheels, a external generator, an aviation turbofan orturbopropeller, a marine propeller, an impeller, and rotating shaftmachinery.

The high current power supply to deliver a short burst of high-currentelectrical energy is sufficient enough to cause the hydrino reactants toundergo the reaction to form hydrinos at a very high rate. In anembodiment, the high current power supply is capable of a high voltageto achieve H₂O arc plasma. The arc plasma may have the characteristicsgiven in the Arc and High-Current Hydrino Plasma Cells Having DC, AC,and Mixtures section of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, thehigh current power supply to deliver a short burst of high-currentelectrical energy comprises: a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC,or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak ACcurrent density in the range of at least one of 100 A/cm² to 1,000,000A/cm², 1000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², and 2000 A/cm² to 50,000 A/cm²wherein the voltage may be determined by the conductivity of the solidfuel wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times theresistance of the solid fuel; the DC or peak AC voltage may be in atleast one range chosen from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hzto 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. Incertain embodiments, the resistance of the fuel can be in at least onerange chosen from about 0.001 milliohm to 100 Mohm, 0.1 ohm to 1 Mohm,and 10 ohm to 1 kohm, and the conductivity of a suitable load perelectrode area active to form hydrinos can be in at least one rangechosen from about 10⁻¹⁰ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10⁶ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10⁵ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10⁴ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10³ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², 10⁻¹ ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to10² ohm⁻¹ cm⁻², and 1 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻² to 10 ohm⁻¹ cm⁻².

In an embodiment, the power stroke corresponding to expansion of thecylinder gases is followed by a compressive exhaust stroke wherein thepiston travels in the opposite direction, and the negative displacementcompresses the cylinder gases that may be forced out of the cylinder 52through the an outlet or exhaust valve assembly 59. The heated cylindergases may transport products out of the cylinder 52 through at least oneexhaust valve 59. At least one of the fuel products and gases may betransported out the exhaust valve assembly 59 through the exhaust outlet57 to a fuel regenerator 55 wherein the products and optionally thegases or fluid that is vaporized are regenerated to the initial fuel andthen returned to the fuel source. In an embodiment, the system may beclosed except for the addition of H₂O that is consumed to form hydrinosand oxygen that may be vented through the exhaust outlet 57 andregenerator 55. In an embodiment, the engine further comprises aconveyor to move the regenerated fuel from the regenerator 55 into thefuel source 63. Suitable conveyors may be at least one of a conveyorbelt, auger or screw, pneumatic conveyor or mover, gravity assisted flowchannel, and others known by those skilled in the art.

In an embodiment, the engine is a reciprocating type with positive andnegative displacement. At least two cylinders may work out of phase witheach other to mutually assist in the reciprocating cycle. The fuel maybe at least significantly combustible such as carbon that comprises H₂O.The fuel may be a fine powder that is injected pneumatically in anembodiment. The fuel may comprise a conductor and H₂O wherein theconductor may form a gaseous product that may perform pressure volumework and be readily exhaustible from the cylinder. In an embodiment, theSF-CIHT engine comprises a modified internal combustion engine havingthe fossil fuel replaced by a solid fuel or energetic material of thepresent disclosure, and the spark plugs and the corresponding powersource is replaced by electrodes 54 and at least one of 62 and 52 and ahigh-current power source 58 that may be low voltage or an arc plasmapower source such as one of those of the present disclosure.

The balance of plant of an internal combustion engine and power loadsystems are well known to those skilled in the art. In otherembodiments, the engine may comprise another type such as a rotaryengine wherein pressure-volume (PV) work is performed by at least one ofthe gases formed and heated by the energy released by the hydrinoreaction that may be explosive kinetically. The system and methodsparallel those of the conventional piston engine. Fuel flows into thecompression chamber, is ignited, expands to perform PV work, then thegases are compressed as they are exhausted to start a new cycle. Theexhaust gas may be regenerated and recycled.

Heat as well as mechanical power is produced by the mechanicalembodiment of the SF-CIHT cell. The SF-CIHT cell engine furthercomprises a heat exchanger that may be on an exterior cylinder surfaceto remove heat produced by the cell and deliver it to a load. In anotherembodiment, the SF CIHT cell comprises a boiler. The heat exchanger orboiler comprises a coolant input to receive cool coolant from a load anda coolant outlet to supply or return hot coolant to the load. The heatmay be used directly or converted to mechanical or electrical powerusing converters known by those skilled in the art such as a heat enginesuch as a steam engine or steam or gas turbine and generator, a Rankineor Brayton-cycle engine, or a Stirling engine. For power conversion, thethermal output from the mechanical embodiment of the SF CIHT cell mayflow out the coolant outlet line to any of the converters of thermalenergy to mechanical or electrical power described in Mills PriorPublications as well as converters known to those skilled in the artsuch as a heat engine, steam or gas turbine system, Stirling engine, orthermionic or thermoelectric converter.

VIII. Hydrino Plasma Cell

In an embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises a plasma cell wherein theplasma is formed intermittently by intermittent application of externalinput power, and electrical power is drawn or output during the phasethat the external input power in off. The plasma gases comprise at leasttwo of a source of hydrogen, hydrogen, a source of catalyst, and acatalyst that form hydrinos by reaction of H with the catalyst toprovide power to an external load. The input plasma power creates thereactants that form hydrinos at least during the external power offphase. The plasma cell may comprise a plasma electrolysis reactor,barrier electrode reactor, RF plasma reactor, rt-plasma reactor,pressurized gas energy reactor, gas discharge energy reactor, microwavecell energy reactor, and a combination of a glow discharge cell and amicrowave and or RF plasma reactor. The catalysts and systems may bethose of the present disclosure and those of disclosed in my prior USPatent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455,filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor,PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul. 29, 2009; Heterogeneous HydrogenCatalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, PCT filed Mar. 18, 2010;Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, filedPCT Mar. 17, 2011; H₂O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst PowerSystem, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012, and CIHT Power System,PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013 (“Mills Prior Applications”) hereinincorporated by reference in their entirety.

The hydrino reaction rate is extraordinarily increased by application ofa high current through the reactants comprising H and catalyst such asHOH. Ignition of H₂O is achieved by application of high current to solidfuels comprising H₂O or a source of H₂O or by forming and maintaining anarc plasma comprising H₂O. The arc plasma may be achieved in microwavecells, DC powered cells, AC powered cells, and cells powered with amixture of DC and AC. In another embodiment, high current is achievedusing plasma flow wherein the plasma may be confined with at least oneof electrostatic and magnetic fields. Exemplary embodiments ofconfinement comprise a solenoidal field such as that provided byHelmholtz coils, a magnetic bottle or mirror as given in Mills PriorApplications, and configurations used in hot fusion research known bythose skilled in the art. The plasma flow can be increased by RFcoupling, particle injection, and other methods and means known to thoseskilled in the art of plasmas.

In embodiments of the present disclosure, the water arc plasma powersystem can comprise: at least one closed reaction vessel; reactantscomprising at least one of source of H₂O and H₂O; at least one set ofelectrodes; a source of electrical power to deliver an initialhigh-voltage breakdown of the H₂O and provide a subsequent high current,and a heat exchanger system, wherein the power system generates arcplasma, light, and thermal energy. In embodiments, arc plasma can begenerated and cause the reactants to undergo a reaction to form hydrinosat a very high rate. In certain embodiments, the H₂O serves a reactantcomprising: (a) a source of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascentH₂O; (b) a source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and (c) aplasma medium. The water arc plasma power system can further comprise aplasma medium comprising at least one of H₂O and trace ions. In certainembodiments, H₂O can be the source of HOH catalyst and H that are formedby arc plasma. H₂O can also be present as at least one of liquid andgaseous states at the standard conditions of a liquid and gaseousmixture according to the H₂O phase diagram for the operatingtemperatures and pressures in the range of about 1° C. to 2000° C. and0.01 atm to 200 atm, respectively. In further embodiments, the plasmamedium can comprise a source of ions comprising at least one of adissolved ionic and a salt compound that causes the medium to be moreconductive to achieve arc breakdown at a lower voltage.

In embodiments, the high breakdown voltage can be in the range of atleast one of about 50 V to 100 kV, 1 kV to 50 kV, and 1 kV to 30 kV, andthe high current can have a limit in the range of at least one of about1 kA to 100 kA, 2 kA to 50 kA, and 10 kA to 30 kA. The high voltage andcurrent may be at least one of DC, AC, and mixtures thereof. Inaddition, the source of electrical power can provide a high dischargecurrent density in the range of at least one of 0.1 A/cm² to 1,000,000A/cm², 1 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², 10 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², 100A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², and 1 kA/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm². Inembodiments, the source of electrical power to form arc plasma comprisesa plurality of capacitors comprising a bank of capacitors capable ofsupplying high voltage in the range of about 1 kV to 50 kV and a highcurrent that increases as the resistance and voltage decreases. Infurther embodiments, the water arc plasma power system can comprise asecondary power source. In addition, the water arc plasma power systemcan comprise at least one of additional power circuit elements and asecondary high current power source. In such embodiments, the source ofelectrical power can comprise a plurality of banks of capacitors thatsequentially supply power to the arc wherein each discharged bank ofcapacitors is recharged by the secondary power source as a given chargedbank of capacitors is discharged.

In further embodiments, the closed vessel further comprises a boilercomprising a steam outlet, a return, and a recirculation pump wherein atleast one H₂O phase comprising at least one of heated water,super-heated water, steam, and super-heated steam flow out the steamoutlet and supply a thermal or mechanical load, at least one theprocesses of cooling of the outlet flow and condensation of steam occurswith thermal power transfer to the load, the cooled steam or water ispumped by the recirculation pump, and the cooled steam or water isreturned to the cell through the return. In additional embodiments, thewater arc plasma power system further comprises at least onethermal-to-electric converter to receive thermal power from at least oneof the boiler and the heat exchanger. The at least onethermal-to-electric converter can comprise at least one of the groupchosen from a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine andgenerator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine-cycle engine, aBrayton-cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter,and a thermoelectric power converter.

A. Microwave Hydrino Plasma Cell

In an embodiment, the plasma cell comprises a microwave plasma cell suchas one of Mills Prior Applications. The microwave cell comprises avessel capable of maintaining at least one of a vacuum, atmosphericpressure, and a pressure above atmospheric, a source of plasma gas, agas inlet, a gas outlet, and a pump to maintain flow of the plasma gasand a pressure gauge, and at least one of an antennae and a microwavecavity, a microwave generator, and a coaxial cable connected from themicrowave generator to at least one of the antennae and the microwavecavity. The plasma gas may comprise at least one of H₂ and H₂O. Theplasma cell may further comprise a grounded conductor immersed in theplasma such as a center axial metal rod to provide a short to ground ofthe voltage generated at the antennae or cavity. The short gives rise toa high current to ignite hydrino reaction. The short may form an arcbetween antennae and the grounded conductor. The high current of the arcmay cause the hydrino reaction to increase significantly.

In embodiment of the microwave plasma cell the plasma gas comprises atleast nitrogen and hydrogen. The catalyst may be amide ion. The pressuremay be in the range of at least about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm, 0.01 Torrto 760 Torr, and 0.1 Torr to 100 Torr. The ratio of nitrogen to hydrogenmay be any desired. In an embodiment, the percentage of nitrogen of thenitrogen-hydrogen plasma gas is in the range of about 1% to 99%.

B. Arc and High-Current Hydrino Plasma Cells Having DC, AC, and Mixtures

In an embodiment, the CIHT cell comprises a hydrino-forming plasma cellcalled a hydrino plasma cell. The high current may be DC, AC, orcombinations thereof. In an embodiment, the cell comprises a highvoltage dielectric barrier gas discharge cell comprising a conducingelectrode and a conducting counter electrode that is sheathed with adielectric barrier such as a barrier comprising a Garolite insulator.The conducting electrode may be cylindrical circumferential to an axialcentered barrier electrode. The plasma gas may comprise at least one ofa source of H and a source of HOH catalyst such as H₂O. Additionalsuitable plasma gases are a mixture of at least one of H₂O, a source ofH, H₂, a source of oxygen, O₂, and an inert gas such as a noble gas. Thegas pressure may be in the range of at least one of about 0.001 Torr to100 atm, 1 Torr to 50 atm, and 100 Torr to 10 atm. The voltage may behigh such as in the range of at least one of about 50 V to 100 kV, 1 kVto 50 kV, and 1 kV to 30 kV. The current may be in the range of at leastone of about 0.1 mA to 100 A, 1 mA to 50 A, and 1 mA to 10A. The plasmamay comprise arcs that have much higher current such as ones in therange of at least one of about 1 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 50 kA, and 1 kAto 20 kA. In an embodiment, the high current accelerates the hydrinoreaction rate. In an embodiment, the voltage and current are AC. Thedriving frequency may be an audio frequency such as in the range of 3kHz to 15 kHz. In an embodiment, the frequency is in the range of atleast one of about 0.1 Hz to 100 GHz, 100 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 kHz to 10 GHz,1 MHz to 1 GHz, and 10 MHz to 1 GHz. An exemplary barrier electrodeplasma cell is described in J. M. Nowak, “Examination of the StrontiumCatalysis of the Hydrino Reaction in an Audio-Frequency, CapacitivelyCoupled, Cylindrical Plasma Discharge”, Master of Science Thesis, NorthCarolina State University, Nuclear Engineering Department, (2009),http://repositorylib.ncsu.edu/ir/bitstream/1840.16/31/1/etd.pdf which isherein incorporated by reference in its entirety. In another embodiment,the dielectric barrier is removed to better support an arc plasma. Theconductor that is thereby exposed to the plasma gas may provide electronthermionic and field emission to support the arc plasma.

In an embodiment, the cell comprises a high voltage power source that isapplied to achieve a breakdown in a plasma gas comprising a source of Hand a source of HOH catalyst. The plasma gas may comprise at least oneof water vapor, hydrogen, a source of oxygen, and an inert gas such as anoble as such as argon. The high voltage power may comprise directcurrent (DC), alternating current (AC), and mixtures thereof. Thebreakdown in the plasma gas causes the conductivity to significantlyincrease. The power source is capable of high current. A high current ata lower voltage than the breakdown voltage is applied to cause thecatalysis of H to hydrino by HOH catalyst to occur at a high rate. Thehigh current may comprise direct current (DC), alternating current (AC),and mixtures thereof.

An embodiment, of a high current plasma cell comprises a plasma gascapable of forming HOH catalyst and H. The plasma gas comprises a sourceof HOH and a source of H such as H₂O and H₂ gases. The plasma gas mayfurther comprise additional gases that permit, enhance, or maintain theHOH catalyst and H. Other suitable gases are noble gases. The cellcomprises at least one of, at least one set of electrodes, at least oneantennae, at least one RF coil, and at least one microwave cavity thatmay comprise an antenna and further comprising at least one breakdownpower source such as one capable of producing a voltage or electron orion energy sufficient to cause electrical breakdown of the plasma gas.The voltage maybe in the range of at least one of about 10 V to 100 kV,100 V to 50 kV, and 1 kV to 20 kV. The plasma gas may initially be in aliquid state as well as be in a gaseous state. The plasma may be formedin a medium that is liquid H₂O or comprises liquid H₂O. The gas pressuremay be in the range of at least one of about 0.001 Torr to 100 atm, 0.01Torr to 760 Torr, and 0.1 Torr to 100 Torr. The cell may comprise atleast one secondary source of power that provides high current oncebreakdown is achieved. The high current may also be provided by thebreakdown power source. Each of the power sources may be DC or AC. Thefrequency range of either may be in the range of at least one of about0.1 Hz to 100 GHz, 100 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 kHz to 10 GHz, 1 MHz to 1 GHz,and 10 MHz to 1 GHz. The high current may be in the range of at leastone of about 1 A to 100 kA, 10 A to 100 kA, 1000 A to 100 kA, 10 kA to50 kA. The high discharge current density may be in the range of atleast one of 0.1 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², 1 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm²,10 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², 100 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², and 1 kA/cm²to 1,000,000 A/cm². In an embodiment, at least one of the breakdown andsecondary high current power sources may be applied intermittently. Theintermittent frequency may be in the range of at least one of about0.001 Hz to 1 GHz, 0.01 Hz to 100 MHz, 0.1 Hz to 10 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz,and 10 Hz to 100 kHz. The duty cycle may be in the range of at least oneof about 0.001% to 99.9%, 1% to 99%, and 10% to 90%. In an embodiment,comprising an AC such as RF power source and a DC power source, the DCpower source is isolated from the AC power source by at least onecapacitor. In an embodiment, the source of H to form hydrinos such as atleast one of H₂ and H₂O is supplied to the cell at a rate that maintainsa hydrino component to the output power that is gives a desired cellgain such as one wherein the hydrino power component exceeds the inputelectrical power.

In an embodiment, the plasma gas is replaced by liquid H₂O that may bepure or comprise an aqueous salt solution such as brine. The solutionmay be incident with AC excitation such high frequency radiation such asRF or microwave excitation. The excited medium comprising H₂O such asbrine may be placed between a RF transmitter and receiver. The RFtransmitter or antenna receives RF power from a RF generator capable ofgenerating a RF signal of frequency and power capable of being absorbedby the medium comprising H₂O. The cell and excitation parameters may beone of those of the present disclosure. In an embodiment, the RFfrequency may be in the range of about 1 MHz to 20 MHz. The RFexcitation source may further comprise a tuning circuit or matchingnetwork to match the impedance of the load to the transmitter. Metalparticles may be suspended in the H₂O or salt solution. The incidentpower may be high such as in the range of at least one of about 0.1W/cm² to 100 kW/cm², 0.5 W/cm² to 10 kW/cm², and 0.5 W/cm² to 1 kW/cm²to cause arcs in the plasma due to interaction of the incident radiationwith the metal particles. The size of the metal particles may beadjusted to optimize the arc formation. Suitable particle sizes are inthe range of about 0.1 um to 10 mm. The arcs carry high current thatcauses the hydrino reaction to occur with high kinetics. In anotherembodiment, the plasma gas comprises H₂O such as H₂O vapor, and the cellcomprises metal objects that are also incident with high frequencyradiation such as RF or microwave. The field concentration on sharppoints on the metal objects causes arcs in the plasma gas comprising H₂Owith a great enhancement of the hydrino reaction rate.

In an embodiment, the high-current plasma comprises an arc. The arcplasma may have a distinguishing characteristic over glow dischargeplasma. In the former case, the electron and ion temperatures may besimilar, and in the latter case, the electron thermal energy may be muchgreater than the ion thermal energy. In an embodiment, the arc plasmacell comprises a pinch plasma. The plasma gas such as one comprising H₂Ois maintained at a pressure sufficient to form an arc plasma. Thepressure may be high such as in the range of about 100 Torr to 100 atm.In an embodiment, the breakdown and high current power supplies may bethe same. The arc may be formed in high pressure H₂O including liquidH₂O by a power supply comprising a plurality of capacitors comprising abank of capacitors capable of supplying high voltage such as a voltagein the range of about 1 kV to 50 kV and a high current such as one thatmay increase as the resistance and voltage decreases with arc formationand maintenance wherein the current may be in the range of about 0.1 mAto 100,000 A. The voltage may be increased by connecting the capacitorsin series, and the capacitance may be increased by connecting thecapacitors in parallel to achieve the desired high voltage and current.The capacitance may be sufficient to maintain the plasma for a longduration such as 0.1 s to greater than 24 hours. The power circuit mayhave additional elements to maintain the arc once formed such as asecondary high current power source. In an embodiment, the power supplycomprises a plurality of banks of capacitors that may sequentiallysupply power to the arc wherein each discharged bank of capacitors maybe recharged by a charging power source as a given charged bank ofcapacitors is discharged. The plurality of banks may be sufficient tomaintain steady state arc plasma. In another embodiment, the powersupply to provide at least one of plasma breakdown and high current tothe arc plasma comprises at least one transformer. In an embodiment, thearc is established at a high DC repetition rate such as in the range ofabout 0.01 Hz to 1 MHz. In an embodiment, the role of the cathode andanode may reverse cyclically. The rate of the reversal may be low tomaintain an arc plasma. The cycle rate of the alternating current may beat least one of about 0 Hz to 1000 Hz, 0 Hz to 500 Hz, and 0 Hz to 100Hz. The power supply may have a maximum current limit that maintains thehydrino reaction rate at a desired rate. In an embodiment, the highcurrent is variable to control the hydrino-produced power to providevariable power output. The high current limit controlled by the powersupply may be in the range of at least one of about 1 kA to 100 kA, 2 kAto 50 kA, and 10 kA to 30 kA. The arc plasma may have a negativeresistance comprising a decreasing voltage behavior with increasingcurrent. The plasma arc cell power circuit may comprise a form ofpositive impedance such as an electrical ballast to establish a stablecurrent at a desired level. The electrodes may be in a desired geometryto provide and electric field between the two. Suitable geometries areat least one of a center cylindrical electrode and an outer concentricelectrode, parallel-plate electrodes, and opposing pins or cylinders.The electrodes may provide at least one of electron thermionic and fieldemission at the cathode to support the arc plasma. High currentdensities such as ones as high as about 10⁶ A/cm² may be formed. Theelectrode may be comprised of at least one of a material that has a highmelting point such as one from the group of a refractory metal such as Wor Mo and carbon and a material that has a low reactivity with watersuch as one from the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir,Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr,Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In. In an embodiment, the electrodes may be movable.The electrodes may be placed in close or direct contact with each otherand then mechanically separated to initiate and maintain the arc plasma.In this case, the breakdown voltage may be much less than the casewherein the electrodes are permanently separated with a fixed gap. Thevoltage applied to form the arc with movable or gap adjustableelectrodes may be in the range of at least one of about 0.1 V to 20 kV,1 V to 10 kV, and 10 V to 1 kV. The electrode separation may be adjustedto maintain a steady arc at a desire current or current density.

In an embodiment, the catalyst comprising at least one of OH, HOH, O₂,nO, and nH (n is an integer) is generated in a water-arc plasma. Aschematic drawing of a H₂O arc plasma cell power generator 700 is shownin FIG. 10. The arc plasma cell 709 comprises two electrodes such as anouter cylindrical electrode 706 and a center axial electrode 703 such asa center rod that with a cell cap 711 and an insulator base 702 that candefine an arc plasma chamber of cell 709 capable of at least one of avacuum, atmospheric pressure, and a pressure greater than atmospheric.The cell 709 is supplied with an arc plasma gas or liquid such as H₂O.Alternatively, the electrodes 703 and 706 are immersed in the arc plasmagas or liquid such as H₂O contained in a vessel 709. The H₂O may be mademore conductive to achieve arc breakdown at a lower voltage by theaddition of a source of ions such as an ionic compound that may dissolvesuch as a salt. The salt may comprise a hydroxide or halide such as analkali hydroxide or halide or others of the present disclosure. Thesupply may be from a source such as a tank 707 having a valve 708 and aline 710 through which the gas or liquid flows into the cell 709, andexhaust gases flow out of the cell through outlet line 726 having atleast one pressure gauge 715 and valve 716 where in a pump 717 removesgases from the cell 709 to maintain at least one of a desired flow andpressure. In an embodiment, the plasma gas is maintained at a high flowcondition such as supersonic flow at high pressure such as atmosphericpressure and higher to provide adequate mass flow of the reactants tothe hydrino reaction to produce hydrino-based power a desired level. Asuitable exemplary flow rate achieves a hydrino-based power that exceedsthe input power. Alternatively, liquid water may be in the cell 709 suchas in the reservoir having the electrodes as the boundaries. Theelectrodes 703 and 706 are connected to a high voltage-high currentpower supply 723 through cell power connectors 724. The connection tothe center electrode 703 may be through a base plate 701. In anembodiment, the power supply 723 may be supplied by another power supplysuch as a charging power supply 721 through connectors 722. The highvoltage-high current power supply 723 may comprise a bank of capacitorsthat may be in series to provide high voltage and parallel to providehigh capacitance and a high current, and the power supply 723 maycomprise a plurality of such capacitor banks wherein each may betemporally discharged and charged to provide a power output that mayapproach a continuous output. The capacitor bank or banks may be chargedby the charging power supply 721.

In an embodiment, an electrode such as 703 may be powered by an AC powersource 723 that may be high frequency and may be high power such as thatprovided by an RF generator such as a Tesla coil. In another embodiment,the electrodes 703 comprise an antennae of a microwave plasma torch. Thepower and frequency may be one of the present disclosure such as in therange of about 100 kHz to 100 MHz or 100 MHz to 10 GHz and 100 W to 500kW per liter, respectively. In an embodiment, the cylindrical electrodemay comprise only the cell wall and may be comprised of an insulatorsuch as quartz, ceramic, or alumina. The cell cap 711 may furthercomprise an electrode such as a grounded or ungrounded electrode. Thecell may be operated to form plasma arcs or streamers of the H₂O that atleast partially covers the electrode 703 inside of the arc plasma cell709. The arcs or steamers greatly enhance the hydrino reaction rate.

In an embodiment, the arc plasma cell 709 is closed to confine thethermal energy release. The water inside of the then sealed cell is inthe standard conditions of a liquid and gaseous mixture according to theH₂O phase diagram for the desired operating temperature and pressure asknown by those skilled in the art. The operating temperature may be inthe range of about 25° C. to 1000° C. The operating pressure may be inthe range of at least one of about 0.001 atm to 200 atm, 0.01 atm to 200atm, and 0.1 atm to 100 atm. The cell 709 may comprise a boiler whereinat least one phase comprising heated water, super heated water, steam,and super heated steam flow out steam outlet 714 and supply a thermal ormechanical load such as a steam turbine to generate electricity. Atleast one the processes of cooling of the outlet flow and condensationof steam occurs with thermal power transfer to the load, and the cooledsteam or water is returned to the cell through a return 712.Alternatively, makeup steam or water is returned. The system make beclosed and may further comprise a pump 713 such as a H₂O recirculationor return pump to circulate the H₂O in its physical phase that serves asa coolant. The cell may further comprise a heat exchanger 719 that maybe internal or on the external cell wall to remove the thermal energyinto a coolant that enters cold at coolant inlet 718 and exists hot atcoolant outlet 720. Thereafter, the hot coolant flows to a thermal loadsuch as a pure thermal load or a thermal to mechanical power converteror a thermal to electrical power converter such as a steam or gasturbine or a heat engine such as a steam engine and optionally agenerator. Further exemplary converters from thermal to mechanical orelectrical power are Rankine or Brayton-cycle engines, Stirling engines,thermionic and thermoelectric converters and other systems known in theart. System and methods of thermal to at least one of mechanical andelectrical conversion are also disclosed in Mills Prior Applicationsthat are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

In an embodiment, the electrodes 703 and 706 such as carbon or metalelectrodes such as tungsten or copper electrodes may be fed into thecell 709 as they erode due to the plasma. The electrodes may be replacedwhen sufficiently eroded or replaced continuously. The corrosion productmay be collected from the cell in a form such as sediment and recycledinto new electrodes. Thus, the arc plasma cell power generator furthercomprises an electrode corrosion product recovery system 705, anelectrode regeneration system 704, and a regenerated electrodecontinuous feed 725. In an embodiment, at least one electrode prone tothe majority of the corrosion such as the cathode such as the centerelectrode 703 may be regenerated by the systems and methods of thepresent disclosure. For example, an electrode may comprise one metalchosen from Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd,Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and Inhaving a corresponding oxide that may be reduced by at least one of H₂treatment, heating, and heating under vacuum. The regeneration system704 may comprise a furnace to melt at least one of the oxide and metaland cast or extrude the electrode from the regenerated metal. Thesystems and methods for metal smelting and shaping or milling are wellknown to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, theregeneration system 704 may comprise an electrolysis cell such as amolten salt electrolysis cell comprising metal ions wherein theelectrode metal may be plated onto the electrode by electrodepositionusing systems and methods that are well known in the art.

An exemplary plasma system reported in the Experimental sectioncomprises an energy storage capacitor connected between abaseplate-and-rod electrode and a concentric electrode that containswater wherein the rod of the baseplate-and-rod electrode is below thewater column. The rod is embedded in an insulator such as a Nylon orceramic sleeve in the cylindrical section and a Nylon or ceramic blockbetween the baseplate and the cylinder. The circuit further comprises aresistor and an inductor to cause an oscillating discharge in the waterbetween the rod and cylinder electrodes. The capacitor may be charged bya high voltage power supply and is discharged by a switch that maycomprise a spark gap in atmospheric air. The electrodes may be made ofcopper. The high voltage may be in the range of about 5 to 25 kV. Thedischarge current may be in the range of 5 to 100 kA. H₂O ignition toform hydrinos at a high rate is achieved by the triggered water arcdischarge wherein the arc causes the formation of atomic hydrogen andHOH catalyst that react to form hydrinos with the liberation of highpower. The power from the formation of hydrinos may be in the form ofthermal, plasma, and light energy. In an embodiment, all energy releasemay be converted to thermal energy that is captured in the sealed celland may be used directly in thermal applications such as space andprocess heating or converted to mechanical energy using a heat engine orto electricity using a thermal to electric converter such as a steamturbine and generator as well as other systems known to those skilled inthe art. The system may also be used to form increased binding energyhydrogen species and compounds such as molecular hydrino H₂(1/p). Theproducts may be removed at outlets 705 and 726.

In an embodiment, the hydrino cell comprises a pinched plasma source toform hydrino continuum emission. The cell comprises and cathode, ananode, a power supply, and at least one of a source of hydrogen and asource of HOH catalyst to form a pinched plasma. The plasma system maycomprise a dense plasma focus source such as those known in the art. Theplasma current may be very high such as greater than 1 kA. The plasmamay be an arc plasma. The distinguishing features are that the plasmagas comprises at least one of H and HOH or H catalyst and the plasmaconditions may be optimized to give hydrogen continuum emission. Theemission may be used as a light source of EUV lithography.

IX. Additional Electrical Power Generation Embodiments

Exemplary power generation systems of the present disclosure may includetwo or more electrodes configured to deliver energy to a fuel source, asource of electrical power configured to deliver energy to theelectrodes, and a plasma power converter. Fuel may be loaded into anarea defined by the two or more electrodes, and when the source ofelectrical power supplies power to the electrodes, the electrodes maycause the fuel to ignite, releasing energy. Byproducts from ignition ofthe fuel may include heat and plasma. Accordingly, the power generatedfrom ignition of the fuel may be in the form of thermal power and may bea highly ionized plasma of the fuel source, which may be capable ofbeing converted directly or indirectly into electricity. Once formed,the plasma may be directed to the plasma power converter for capturingthe energy of the plasma.

As used herein, the term “ignites” refers to the establishment of highreaction kinetics caused by a high current applied to the fuel. Ignitionmay occur at approximately atmospheric pressure, or may occur in avacuum, for example, at pressures ranging up to approximately 10⁻¹⁰ Torror more. Accordingly, the fuel, the electrodes, and/or the plasmaconverter may exist in a vacuum environment. Further, one or more ofthese components may exist in a suitable vacuum vessel to facilitate thecreation and maintenance of a vacuum environment.

Chemical reactants of the present disclosure may be referred to aswater-based that may comprise a majority H₂O, or solid fuel, orenergetic materials (e.g., materials comprising H₂O or a source of H₂Oand further comprising a conductive material to promote the ignition ofthe fuel by conducting a high applied current), or a combinationthereof. Solid fuels 1003 include any materials capable of formingplasma and may include, e.g., a pellet, portion, aliquot, powder,droplet, stream, mist, gas, suspension, or any suitable combinationthereof. Solid embodiments may have any suitable shape; for example,solid fuel 1003 may be shaped so as to increase the surface area ofsolid fuel 1003 in order to promote ignition. The term “solid fuel” mayinclude liquid or vapor fuels. Examples of suitable solid fuels aredescribed in the Chemical Reactor section and the Solid Fuel CatalystInduced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter section ofthe disclosure, but basic required reactants may include, among otherthings, at least one of a source of H and a source of O, and H₂O or asource of H₂O; and a conductor. The solid fuel and/or energetic materialmay comprise a source of nascent H₂O catalyst, a source of H, and aconductor. An exemplary solid fuel may comprise approximately, e.g.,1:1:1 mole ratios of transition metal oxide to transition metal towater, though any material may be included in a ratio of approximately2:1 or 10:1 relative to any of the other materials. Water-based fuelscomprising a majority H₂O may comprise water or a water-based mixture orsolution, e.g., water with one or more impurities. The water may beabsorbed within another material and may include a conducting elementdissolved or mixed within it. Though many of the exemplary embodimentsrefer to use with a “solid fuel,” devices for use with all chemicalreactants, including water-based fuels, are contemplated herein.

The fuel or energetic material may be conductive, for example, a metal,a metal oxide, or a conducting element. In some embodiments, aconductive matrix may be used to allow a high current to permeate solidfuel 1003 during ignition and/or to cause the mixture to be conductive.For example, chemical reactants may be misted or coated onto a mesh as aslurry and dried before being subjected to an electrical pulse. Chemicalreactants may be loose or may be contained in a sealed vessel, forexample, a sealed metal vessel, such as a sealed aluminum vessel. Somefuels may not be used in conjunction with a conductive vessel,including, for example, certain fuel pellets made of, e.g., alkalineearth halides, magnesium chloride, some transition metals or metaloxides, activated carbons, or any suitable materials or combinationsthereof.

In an embodiment, the fuel 1003 comprises reactants that constitutehydrino reactants of the disclosure comprising at least one source ofcatalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H₂O, at least one source ofatomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising at least oneof a conductor and a conductive matrix. In an embodiment, the fuel 1003comprises at least one of a source of a solid fuel or energetic materialof the current disclosure and a solid fuel or energetic material of thecurrent disclosure. In an embodiment, exemplary solid fuels 1003comprise a source of H₂O and a conductive matrix to form at least one ofthe source of catalyst, the catalyst, the source of atomic hydrogen, andthe atomic hydrogen. The H₂O source may comprise at least one of bulkH₂O, a state other than bulk H₂O, a compound or compounds that undergoat least one of react to form H₂O and release bound H₂O. The bound H₂Omay comprise a compound that interacts with H₂O wherein the H₂O is in astate of at least one of absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, andwaters of hydration. The fuel 1003 may comprise a conductor and one ormore compounds or materials that undergo at least one of release of bulkH₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration,and have H₂O as a reaction product. Further exemplary solid or energeticmaterial fuels 1003 are a hydrated hydroscopic material and a conductor;hydrated carbon; hydrated carbon and a metal; a mixture of a metaloxide, a metal or carbon, and H₂O; and a mixture of a metal halide, ametal or carbon, and H₂O. The metal and metal oxide may comprise atransition metal such as Co, Fe, Ni, and Cu. The metal of the halide maycomprise an alkaline earth metal such as Mg or Ca and a halide such asF, Cl, Br or I. The metal may have a thermodynamically unfavorablereaction with H₂O such as at least one of the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb,Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te,Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In wherein the fuel 1003 maybe regenerated by addition of H₂O. The fuel 1003 that constitute hydrinoreactants may comprise at least one of slurry, solution, emulsion,composite, and a compound.

As is shown in FIG. 12, a number of electrodes 1002 define a space 1017between the electrodes for receiving and/or containing solid fuel 1003.Electrodes 1002 may be configured to deliver electrical power to solidfuel 1003, for example, in a short burst of low-voltage, high-currentelectrical energy. For example, in some embodiments in which a solidfuel is used, a lower voltage and a higher current may be applied to thefuel to promote ignition. For example, less than 10 V (e.g., 8 V) andapproximately 14,000 A/cm² may be applied to a solid fuel. Inembodiments in which a higher voltage is applied to a solid fuel, aconductor may not be needed to promote ignition. When a lower voltage isapplied to a fuel, a conductor may be used to promote ignition. In someembodiments, the reaction rate of converting chemical reactants intoplasma may depend, at least in part, on the application or developmentof a high current to the reactants. For example, in some embodiments inwhich a water-based fuel is used, approximately 4.5 kV and approximately20,000 A/cm² may be applied to the fuel. Electrodes 1002 may apply alow-voltage, high-current, high-power pulse to solid fuel 1003 thatcauses a very rapid reaction rate and energy release. The energy releasemay be very high and may generate streams of plasma that flow outwardsin opposite directions at high velocities such as supersonic velocities.

In an exemplary embodiment, electrodes 1002 may apply a 60 Hz voltagewith less than a 15 V peak, and the current may be between approximately10,000 A/cm² and 50,000 A/cm² peak, and the power may be betweenapproximately 50,000 W/cm² and 750,000 W/cm². A wide range offrequencies, voltages, currents, and powers may be suitable; forexample, ranges of about 1/100 times to 100 times the afore-mentionedparameters may also be suitable. For example, the solid fuel orenergetic material may be ignited by a low-voltage, high-current pulse,such as one created by a spot welder, achieved by confinement betweentwo copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder.In some embodiments, the 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS, andthe current may be about 10,000 A to 40,000 A.

The voltage may be selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixtureof current that is in the range of, e.g., approximately 100 A to1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, or 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak ACcurrent density may be in the range of, e.g., approximately 100 A/cm² to1,000,000 A/cm², 1,000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm², 2,000 A/cm² to 50,000A/cm², 10,000 A/cm² to 50,000 A/cm², or 5,000 A/cm² to 100,000 A/cm²,for example, 5,000 A/cm², 10,000 A/cm², 12,000 A/cm², 14,000 A/cm²,18,000 A/cm², or 25,000 A/cm². For highly conducive fuels the DC or peakAC voltage may be in the range of about, e.g., 0.1 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100V, 1 V to 20 V, or 1 V to 15 V. For highly resistive solid fuels such aswater-based solid fuels that comprise a majority H2O, the DC or peak ACvoltage may be in the range of about, e.g., 100 V to 50 kV, 1 kV to 30kV, 2 kV to 15 kV, or 4 kV to 10 kV . The AC frequency may be in therange of, e.g., approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to100 kHz, or 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in the range ofabout, e.g., 10⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10 s to 1 s, 10⁻⁴ s to 0.1 s, or 10 s to0.01 s.

In some embodiments, the current, voltage, frequency, or pulse time maybe determined, at least in part, by the type of solid fuel 1003 orenergetic material used, or the conductivity of the fuel or energeticmaterial used. The voltage may be determined according to the desiredcurrent multiplied by the resistance of the fuel or energetic materialsample. For example, if the resistance of the solid fuel or energeticmaterial sample is of the order of 1 mohm, the voltage applied may belower, such as <10 V. In the exemplary case wherein the fuel comprises100% H₂O or essentially 100% H2O having a resistance that is very highsuch as greater than 1 Mohm, the voltage may be high and, in someembodiments, may be above the breakdown voltage (e.g., >5 kV) of H₂O. Inembodiments spanning the two extreme cases, the DC or peak AC voltagemay be in at least one range chosen from about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV. The AC frequency may be in the range of about0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, or 100 Hz to 10 kHz.In one embodiment, a DC voltage may be discharged to create plasma suchas arc plasma comprising ionized H₂O wherein the current is underdampedand oscillates as it decays.

In some embodiments, a high-current pulse with the desired voltage andcurrent may be achieved using the discharge of capacitors, such assupercapacitors, that may be connected in series or in parallel. Thecurrent may be DC or may be conditioned with circuit elements,including, e.g., a transformer (such as a low voltage transformer). Thecapacitor may be charged by or may be included in an electrical powersource 1004, which may include, e.g., a power grid, a generator, a fuelcell, a battery, or a portion of an electrical output of the powergenerator system 1020 or another such power generator system e.g. In anexemplary embodiment, a suitable frequency, voltage, and currentwaveform may be achieved by power conditioning the output of thecapacitors or battery. In an embodiment, an exemplary circuit achieves acurrent pulse of 15,000 A at 8 V.

In some exemplary water-based fuel embodiments comprising mostly H₂O,the high-current plasma generated may be in the form of arc plasma.Plasma gas, such as one comprising H₂O, may be maintained at a pressuresufficient to form arc plasma. The arc may be formed in high-pressure(e.g., in the range of about 100 Torr to 100 atm) H₂O, including liquidH₂O, by a power supply capable of supplying a high voltage such (e.g.,in the range of about 1 kV to 50 kV) and a high current (e.g., in therange of about 0.1 mA to 100,000 A), which may increase as theresistance and voltage decreases with arc formation and maintenance.Exemplary power supplies may include a series of capacitors that may beconnected in series to increase the voltage and in parallel to increasethe capacitance and the current. The capacitance with optional dynamicrecharging of the capacitors may be sufficient to maintain the plasmafor a longer duration, for example, for approximately 0.1 s to greaterthan 24 hours. In some embodiments, the breakdown and high current powersupplies may be the same. The system may comprise a second power supplyto dynamically recharge the capacitors.

An exemplary power generation system may include additional elements tohelp maintain the arc once formed, such as a secondary high-currentpower source. In some embodiments, the power supply may include aplurality of capacitors in series or parallel that may sequentiallysupply power to the arc. The plurality of capacitors may be sufficientto maintain steady state arc plasma. In some embodiments, the arc may beestablished at a higher DC repetition rate, e.g., in the range of about0.01 Hz to 1 MHz, and the role of the cathode and anode may reversecyclically. The rate of the reversal may be low to maintain arc plasma.The cycle rate of the alternating current may be at least one of about 0Hz to 1000 Hz, 0 Hz to 500 Hz, and 0 Hz to 100 Hz. The power supply mayhave a maximum current limit that substantially maintains the plasmareaction rate at a desired rate. In some embodiments, the high currentmay be variable to control the plasma-produced power to provide variablepower output. The high current limit controlled by the power supply maybe in the range of at least one of about 1 kA to 100 kA, 2 kA to 50 kA,and 10 kA to 30 kA.

Catalysts for a water-based fuel embodiment may include at least one ofOH, H2O, O2, nO, and nH (n is an integer) to promote generation ofwater-arc plasmas. An exemplary power generation system may include anenergy storage capacitor. The capacitor may be charged by a high-voltagepower supply and may be discharged by a switch that may include a sparkgap in atmospheric air. The high voltage may be in the range of about 4to 25 kV, for example. The discharge current may be in the range of 5 to100 kA, for example. H₂O ignition to form plasma at a high rate may beachieved by the triggered water arc discharge so that the arc causes theformation of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalysts that react to form plasmawith the liberation of high power. The power from the reaction may be inthe form of thermal, plasma, and light energy. All energy release may beconverted to thermal energy that may be used directly in thermalapplications (such as space and process heating, e.g.) or converted toelectricity using a heat engine (such as a steam turbine, e.g.).

Electrodes 1002 may be formed of any suitable material for substantiallywithstanding fuel ignition and the resulting heat generation. Forexample, electrodes 1002 may be formed of carbon, which may decrease orsubstantially prevent loss of conductivity that may occur due tooxidation at the surface. The electrodes may be formed of a refractorymetal that is stable in a high-temperature atmospheric environment, forexample, high-temperature stainless steel, copper, or any other suitablematerial or combinations of materials. Electrodes 1002 may include acoating for protecting electrodes 1002 from the ignition process.Electrodes 1002 may be coated with or formed of a suitable conductingmaterial that is resistant to melting or corroding, e.g., a refractoryalloy, a high-temperature, oxidation-resistant alloy [such as TiAlN], ora high-temperature stainless steel), or any suitable combinationthereof. Additionally, electrodes 1002 may be formed of a material thatis substantially non-reactive in an aqueous environment. One or moreelectrodes may include, for example, one or more of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi,Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl,Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In.

The geometrical area of the electrodes may facilitate high currentdensity to the fuel sample to be ignited and, in some instances, to theentire fuel sample. While two electrodes 1002 are depicted in theexemplary figures, any number of electrodes may be used, for example,three or more electrodes may together define an area for receiving solidfuel 1003, or multiple sets of electrodes 1002 may be included in powergeneration system 1020 and may define multiple regions for receivingfuel.

The space between the electrodes for receiving solid fuel 1003, shown inFIG. 12 as fuel loading region 1017, may be smaller than the size ofeach of the electrodes defining the area, respectively, or may be thesame size or larger than the size of the electrodes. As is shown inFIGS. 13A and 13B, the size of fuel loading region 1017 may vary. Forexample, electrodes 1002 may be configured to move further apart fromeach other (FIG. 13A) or closer together to each other (FIG. 13B). As isdepicted in FIGS. 13C and 13D, power generation system 1020 may includea plurality of electrodes defining a plurality of fuel loading regions1017, which may also be moveable relative to each other, oralternatively, may be stationary. For example, one set of electrodes maybe moveable and one set may be stationary, or both sets may be moveableor both sets may be stationary. In moveable embodiments, the variationin size of fuel loading region 1017 may be fixed, e.g., electrodes 1002may move at a fixed distance relative to each other. In otherembodiments, the variation in size of fuel loading region 1017 maychange, e.g., to accommodate fuel samples of different sizes or toincrease or decrease power generation or the amount of voltage orcurrent delivered by electrodes 1002 to solid fuel 1003.

As is shown in FIGS. 13A and 13C, electrodes 1002 may move further apartfrom each other when receiving solid fuel 1003 and may move closertogether once solid fuel 1003 is within fuel loading region 1017, as isshown in FIGS. 13B and 13D. As discussed above, electrodes 1002 maycooperate to define fuel loading region 1017. Electrodes 1002 may moveapart from each other or closer together to each other, for example, toincrease or decrease the size of fuel loading region 1017 to facilitatedelivery, maintain fuel within fuel loading region 1017, and/or positionsolid fuel 1003 within fuel loading region 1017. In some embodiments,one electrode may move closer or further from another electrode, whilethe other electrode remains in place, while in other embodiments, bothelectrodes 1002 may be moveable. Movement of electrodes 1002 relative toeach other may facilitate ignition of solid fuel 1003 within fuelloading region 1017. For example, collision of electrode surfaces maypromote ignition, or rotational or friction-generating movement of oneor both electrodes may promote ignition. In other embodiments,electrodes 1002 may each be stationary.

As is shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B, to better confine solid fuel 1003, oneof electrodes 1002 may include a male portion, depicted as region A, andone of electrodes 1002 may include a female portion, depicted as regionB. The male and female portions may be configured to cooperatively forma chamber capable of housing solid fuel 1003, as is shown in FIG. 14B.The chamber, and thus fuel loading region 1017, may be open or may beclosed off, entirely or in part, from the surrounding environment.Additionally, the chamber may be configured to open and/or close with orwithout the movement of electrodes 1002 further or closer relative toeach other. For example, the male and female portions may include anopening or a moveable panel or door for loading solid fuel 1003 into thechamber defined by electrodes 1002.

Further, the pressures achieved in loading region 1017 may alsofacilitate fuel ignition and/or plasma generation and manipulation.Plasma generated from the ignition of solid fuel 1003 may by highlyreactive, and containing the plasma within a vacuum environment mayincrease control over the plasma generation and conversion process. Forexample, a vacuum environment may reduce the collision of ions with thesurrounding air and/or control the reaction of plasma with surroundingoxygen. In various embodiments, loading region 1017 may be enclosedwithin a suitable vacuum vessel, or electrodes 1002, aplasma-to-electric converter 1006, and/or any other suitable componentsof system 1020 may be included within a vacuum vessel. In someembodiments, all of system 1020 may be included in a vacuum vessel.Suitable pressures may range from approximately atmospheric pressure toapproximately 10⁻¹⁰ Torr or more. To create and maintain vacuumpressures, power generation system 1020 may include any suitable vacuumpumps, valves, inlets, outlets, for example. Further, a vacuum vesselmay be substantially rigid or substantially flexible (for example, a bagor other deformable material), and may be formed of any suitablematerial, including, e.g., metal or plastic. Suitable vessels may createor maintain reduced-oxygen or oxygen-free environments, reduced-gas orgas-free environments, or may contain an amount of inert gas, forexample, argon, nitrogen, or other noble gases to help control thereaction of plasma.

In FIG. 15A, fuel loading region 1017 is flanked by electrodes 1002, andelectrodes 1002 and solid fuel 1003 are open to the surroundingenvironment. In FIG. 15B, electrodes 1002 each include semi-circularportions configured to cooperate to form a more closed fuel loadingregion 1017. Electrodes 1002 may close off fuel loading region 1017completely or may include open portions, for example, through whichexpanding plasma may escape. Electrodes 1002 may move closer togetherand further apart from each other to open and close loading region 1017,or may remain stationary. In FIG. 15C, electrodes 1002 and fuel loadingregion 1017 may both be partially or fully enclosed in a cell 1001. Cell1001 may be configured to open and close to allow delivery of solid fuel1003 within fuel loading region 1017. As discussed above, cell 1001 mayinclude a vacuum vessel, and electrodes 1002 and fuel loading region1017 may be exposed to negative pressures. As is shown in FIG. 15D, cell1001 may enclose fuel loading region 1017, electrodes 1002, andplasma-to-electric converters 1006. Pressures inside cell 1001 mayapproximate atmospheric pressure or may be negative to expose fuelloading region 1017, electrodes 1002, and plasma-to-electric converters1006 to vacuum pressures. As with FIG. 15C, cell 1001 may partially orfully enclose the inner components and may be configured to open andclose to allow delivery of solid fuel 1003 within fuel loading area1017.

Electrodes 1002 may be stand-alone or may be part of a larger componentwithin power generation system 1020. For example, in the embodiment ofFIG. 12, electrodes 1002 may be included as part of a catalyst-inducedhydrino transition cell. A power generation system may include one ormore cells. Each cell may in turn include at least two electrodes 1002.As is shown in FIG. 12, within a cell 1001, two or more electrodes 1002may cooperate with each other to define a fuel loading region 1017. Insome embodiments incorporating cell 1001, electrodes 1002 may apply alow-voltage, high-current, high-power pulse to solid fuel 1003 thatcauses a very rapid reaction rate and energy release. Additionally,pressures within cell 1001 may be negative to facilitate plasmageneration and manipulation and to control the reactivity of thegenerated plasma. For example, fuel loading region 1017 and/orelectrodes 1002 may exist in a vacuum of just below atmospheric pressureto approximately 10⁻¹⁰ Torr or more. Accordingly, any suitable vacuumpumps, valves, inlets, outlets, etc., may be included in system 1020 inorder to create and maintain vacuum pressures.

In some embodiments, fuel 1003 and electrodes 1002 may be oppositelyelectrostatically charged to facilitate loading of solid fuel 1003 intofuel loading region 1017, which may cause solid fuel 1003 toelectrostatically stick to a pre-determined region of each electrode1002 where the fuel is ignited. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 16, thesurfaces of electrodes 1002 may be parallel with a gravitational axis.This may allow solid fuel 1003 to be delivered to fuel loading region1017 from a region above electrodes 1002. Further, the regions ofelectrodes 1002 that define fuel loading region 1017 may be smooth ormay be textured, e.g., to facilitate ignition of solid fuel 1003.

In some embodiments, electrodes 1002 may include moveable portions, forexample, to promote ignition of solid fuel 1003. One electrode mayinclude a moveable portion configured to interact with a surface of oneor more other electrodes, or an electrode may include a movable portionthat is configured to interact with a moveable portion of one or moreother electrodes.

In the embodiment of FIG. 16, electrodes 1002 may include moveablecompression mechanisms 1002 a configured to interact with each other toapply a compressive force on solid fuel 1003. For example, one or moreelectrodes 1002 may include gears adjacent fuel loading region 10017.Suitable gears may include, for example, bevel gears, spur gears,helical gears, double helical gears (e.g., herringbone gears), andcrossed gears, and the gears may include any suitable number ororientation of teeth. As is shown in FIG. 17A, solid fuel 1003 may bereceived within fuel loading region 1017 between the gears. Solid fuel1003 may deposit in gaps formed between the teeth of a gear and may becompressed by a mating tooth of the mating gear. For example, as isshown in FIG. 17B, the gears may interact, and a gear with n teeth(where n is an integer) may receive solid fuel 1003 within an n^(th)inter-tooth gap, and fuel in the n−1 inter-tooth gap may be compressedby tooth n−1 of the mating gear. In some embodiments, solid fuel 1003and a fuel-receiving region of the gear teeth of electrodes 1002 may beoppositely electrostatically charged such that, when delivered to theelectrodes, solid fuel 1003 electrostatically sticks to the region ofone or both electrodes where the fuel is ignited when the teeth mesh.

In FIGS. 17A and 17B, compression mechanisms 1002 a are shown as aregion of electrodes 1002. In other compression, compression mechanisms1002 a may make up all of electrodes 1002. Such an embodiment is shownin FIGS. 18A and 18B. Further, while compression mechanisms 1002 a maymove (in these embodiments, rotate), electrodes 1002 may also movecloser and further away from each compression, as is demonstrated inFIGS. 17A and 17B and FIGS. 18A and 18B. Alternatively, compressionmechanisms 1002 a may move (in this case, rotate) and electrodes 1002may remain stationary.

In some embodiments, one or more electrodes 1002 may include rollersinstead of, or in addition to, gears as compression mechanisms 1002 a.For example, the embedment depicted in FIG. 24 includes rollers in placeof gears. The rollers may be located at end regions of electrodes 1002and may be separated by a gap to facilitate delivery of solid fuel 1003between the electrodes and may move closer to each other once solid fuel1003 is delivered to fuel loading region 1017 in order to apply acompressive force on the fuel. In other embodiments, electrodes 1002 andthe rollers may be configured to remain in place and solid fuel 1003 maybe fed into the rollers from one side, for example, fed down into therollers without movement of electrodes 1002 towards or away from eachother. Solid fuel 1003 and a fuel-receiving region of the rollers ofelectrodes 1002 may be oppositely charged such that, when delivered tothe electrodes, solid fuel 1003 electrostatically sticks to the regionof one or both electrodes where the rollers meet and the fuel ignites.

In moveable embodiments, electrodes 1002 may be biased towards or awayfrom each other. For example, in some moveable embodiments, the rollersor gears of electrodes 1002 may be biased towards each other. Biasing ofelectrodes 1002 or of moveable portions of electrodes 1002 may beachieved using, e.g., springs or pneumatic or hydraulic mechanisms.

Compression of solid fuel 1003 against the rollers or gears may aid inignition, and in embodiments including gears, the meshing of teeth andcompression on solid fuel 1003 may cause electrical contact between themating teeth through a conductive fuel. In some embodiments, the gearsmay include a conductive material in the interdigitation region thatcontacts the fuel during meshing and may include an insulating materialin other regions so that the current selectively flows through the fuel.For example, the gears may be formed of or coated with a non-conductiveor insulating material, e.g., ceramic, quartz, diamond thin film, or anyother suitable material or combination of materials, and may be coatedwith a conductive material, e.g., a conductive metal, in theinterdigitation region. In other embodiments, the gears may be formed ofa conductive material and may be coated with a non-conductive orinsulating material outside of the interdigitation region. Thehigh-current flow generated by the electrical contact between the matingteeth and the fuel may promote ignition of solid fuel 1003. The gears orrollers may be textured, e.g., to increase friction and promoteignition. In some embodiments, delivery of solid fuel 1003 may be timedto the movement of the gears or rollers.

The plasma formed by ignition of solid fuel 1003 may expand out thesides of the gears, rollers, or end regions of electrodes 1002, and aplasma-to-electric converter may be placed in the flow path to receivethe plasma. In embodiments in which two or more streams of plasma areejected from electrodes 1002 in opposite axial directions, a convertermay be placed in the flow path of each stream. The axial flow may occurthrough a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter or the plasma may be instationary or flowing contact with a plasmadynamic (PDC) power conveter.Further directional flow may be achieved with confining magnets, such asthose of Helmholtz coils or a magnetic bottle, for example.

For example, in a moveable embodiment, the plasma expansion flow mayoccur along an axis that is parallel with the shaft of the gears (ifincluded), which may also be transverse to the direction of fueldelivery into fuel loading region 1017. Solid fuel 1003 may becontinuously delivered to gears or rollers that rotate to propel thefuel through the gap. Solid fuel 1003 may be continuously ignited as itis rotated to fill the space between the electrodes along the meshingregions of a set of gears or opposing sides of a set of rollers. Anelectrically conductive solid fuel 1003 may complete the circuit betweenthe electrodes 1002, and the high-current flow through solid fuel 1003may ignite the fuel. In some embodiments, the output power may be in agenerally steady state. In some embodiments, solid fuel 1003 may bedelivered intermittently to prevent the expanding plasma from disruptingthe fuel stream flow. For example, delivery of solid fuel 1003 may occurat timed intervals or may be initiated based on output power, eitherautomatically, e.g., through the use of a feedback mechanism, ormanually. Exemplary delivery mechanisms will be described further belowin detail.

In an exemplary embodiment, electrodes 1002 (acting as part of a powergenerator) may produce intermittent bursts of power from a cell 1001.Alternatively, a power generation system 1020 may include a plurality ofcells 1001 that output the superposition of the individual cell's powerduring timed blast events of solid fuel 1003. The timing of the eventsamong the plurality of cells may provide more continuous output power.

Electrodes 1002 may be positioned so that they make contact with oneanother at opposing points along the length of the electrodes to cause asequence of high-current flow and rapid reaction kinetics along theelectrode set at a given location. The opposing contact points onopposite electrodes may be made by mechanically moving the correspondingconnections to the contact location or by electronically switching theconnections. The connections may be made in a synchronous manner toachieve a more steady power output from the cell or plurality cells.

Following ignition, the plasma power formed may then be converted intoelectricity by a suitable plasma converter. A plasma converter mayconvert plasma into any suitable form of non-plasma power, including,e.g., mechanical, nuclear, chemical, thermal, electrical, andelectromagnetic power, or any suitable combination thereof. Descriptionsof exemplary suitable plasma power converters are provided in thePlasmadynamic Converter (PDC) section, the Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD)Converter section, the Electromagnetic Direct (Crossed Field or Drift)Converter, Direct Converter section, the Charge Drift Converter section,the Magnetic Confinement section, and the Solid Fuel Catalyst InducedHydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell section. The details of these andother plasma to electric power converters are given in my priorpublications such as R. M. Mayo, R. L. Mills, M. Nansteel, “DirectPlasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma Thermal Power to Electricity,” IEEETransactions on Plasma Science, October, (2002), Vol. 30, No. 5, pp.2066-2073; R. M. Mayo, R. L. Mills, M. Nansteel, “On the Potential ofDirect and MHD Conversion of Power from a Novel Plasma Source toElectricity for Microdistributed Power Applications,” IEEE Transactionson Plasma Science, August, (2002), Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 1568-1578; R. M.Mayo, R. L. Mills, “Direct Plasmadynamic Conversion of Plasma ThermalPower to Electricity for Microdistributed Power Applications,” 40thAnnual Power Sources Conference, Cherry Hill, N.J., June 10-13, (2002),pp. 1-4 (“Mills Prior Plasma Power Conversion Publications”) which areherein incorporated by reference in their entirety and my priorapplications such as Microwave Power Cell, Chemical Reactor, And PowerConverter, PCT/US02/06955, filed Mar. 7, 2002 (short version),PCT/US02/06945 filed Mar. 7, 2002 (long version), U.S. case Ser. No.10/469,913 filed Sep. 5, 2003; Plasma Reactor And Process For ProducingLower-Energy Hydrogen Species, PCT/US04/010608 filed Apr. 8, 2004, U.S.Ser. No. 10/552,585 filed Oct. 12, 2015; and Hydrogen Power, Plasma, andReactor for Lasing, and Power Conversion, PCT/US02/35872 filed Nov. 8,2002, U.S. Ser. No. 10/494,571 filed May 6, 2004 (“Mills Prior PlasmaPower Conversion Publications”) herein incorporated by reference intheir entirety. Heat, as well as plasma, may be produced by each cell asbyproducts of the fuel ignition. The heat may be used directly or may beconverted to mechanical or electrical power using any suitable converteror combination of converters, including, e.g., a heat engine, such as asteam engine or steam or gas turbine and generator, a Rankine orBrayton-cycle engine, or a Stirling engine. For power conversion, eachcell may be interfaced with any converter of thermal power or plasmapower to mechanical or to electrical power such as, e.g., aplasma-to-electric converter, a heat engine, steam or gas turbinesystem, Stirling engine, or thermionic or thermoelectric converter.Exemplary plasma converters may include a plasmadynamic power converter,an direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magneticmirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, aPost or a Venetian Blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon-bunchingmicrowave power converter, a photoelectric converter, an electromagneticdirect (crossed field or drift) converter, or any other suitableconverter or combination of converters. In some embodiments, a cell mayinclude at least one cylinder of an internal combustion engine.Exemplary cells are described further herein in detail.

The plasma energy converted to electricity may, in some embodiments, bedissipated in an external circuit. As demonstrated by calculations andexperimentally, greater than 50% conversion of plasma energy toelectricity may be achieved in some instances.

In some embodiments, plasma power formed may be directly converted intoelectricity. During H catalysis, electrons are ionized from the HOHcatalyst by the energy transferred from the H being catalyzed to theHOH. These electrons may be conducted in the applied, high-currentcircuit to prevent the catalysis reaction from being self-limiting bycharge buildup. A burst is produced by the fast kinetics that in turncauses massive electron ionization. The high velocity of the radiallyoutward expansion of the exploding fuel that, in some embodiments, maycomprise an essentially 100% ionized plasma in the circumferential highmagnetic field due to the applied current, and may give rise tomagnetohydrodynamic power conversion at crossed electrodes. Themagnitude of the voltage may increase in the direction of the appliedpolarity since this is the Lorentzian deflection direction due to thecurrent direction and the corresponding magnetic field vector and radialflow directions. In an embodiment using magnetohydrodynamic powerconversion and DC current, the applied high DC current may be such thatthe corresponding magnetic field is DC.

In an embodiment using the principles of magnetic space chargeseparation, a plasmadynamic power converter 1006 may be used. Due totheir lower mass relative to positive ions, electrons may be confined tomagnetic flux lines of a magnetized electrode, e.g., a cylindricalmagnetized electrode or an electrode in an applied magnetic field. Thus,electrons are restricted in mobility, whereas, positive ions arerelatively free to be collisional with the intrinsically orextrinsically magnetized electrode. Both electrons and positive ions arefully collisional with an unmagnetized counter electrode that maycomprise a conductor oriented in a direction perpendicular to themagnetic field applied to the extrinsically magnetized electrode.Plasmadynamic conversion (“PDC”) extracts power directly from thethermal and potential energy of the plasma and does not rely on plasmaflow. Instead, power extraction by PDC exploits the potential differencebetween a magnetized and unmagnetized electrode immersed in the plasmato drive current in an external load and, thereby, extract electricalpower directly from stored plasma thermal energy. PDC of thermal plasmaenergy to electricity may be achieved by inserting at least two floatingconductors directly into the body of high temperature plasma. One ofthese conductors may be magnetized by an external electromagnetic fieldor permanent magnet, or it may be intrinsically magnetic. The other maybe unmagnetized. A potential difference arises due to the difference incharge mobility of heavy positive ions versus light electrons. Thisvoltage is applied across an electrical load.

Power generation system 1020 may also include additional internal orexternal electromagnetic or permanent magnets or may include multipleintrinsically magnetized and unmagnetized electrodes, for example,cylindrical electrodes, such as pin electrodes. The source of uniformmagnetic field B parallel to each electrode may be provided by anelectromagnet, e.g., one or more Helmholtz coils that may besuperconducting or a permanent magnet.

The magnet current may also be supplied to solid fuel 1003 to initiateignition. A source of electrical power 1004, as shown in FIG. 12, maysupply power to electrodes 1002 to ignite solid fuel 1003. In suchembodiments, the magnetic field produced by the high current ofelectrical power source 1004 may be increased by flowing throughmultiple turns of an electromagnet before flowing through solid fuel1003. The strength of the magnetic field B may be adjusted to produce apre-determined positive ion versus electron radius of gyration tomaximize the power at the electrodes. In some embodiments, at least onemagnetized electrode may be oriented parallel to the applied magneticfield B and at least one corresponding counter electrode may be orientedperpendicular to magnetic field B such that it is unmagnetized due toits orientation relative to the direction of B. The power may bedelivered to a load through leads that are connected to at least onecounter electrode. In some embodiments, the cell wall may serve as anelectrode.

In some embodiments, the plasma produced from the ignition event may beexpanding plasma. When expanding plasma is produced,magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) may be a suitable method of conversion.Alternatively, in some embodiments, the plasma may be confined. Inaddition to a plasma power conversion system, the power generationsystem may also include a plasma confinement system, e.g., solenoidalfields or a magnetic bottle, to confine the plasma and extract more ofthe power of the energetic ions as electricity. The magnets may includeone or more electromagnetic and permanent magnets. The magnets may beopen coils, e.g., Helmholtz coils. The plasma may further be confined ina magnetic bottle and by any other systems and methods known to thoseskilled in the art.

The plasma-to-electric power converter 1006 of FIGS. 12, 15A-15C and 16,may include a magnetohydrodynamic power converter. The positive andnegative ions undergo Lorentzian direction in opposite directions andare received at corresponding electrodes to affect a voltage betweenthem. Accordingly, two magnetohydrodynamic power converters may beused—one placed in each ion path. The typical MHD method to form a massflow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas seeded with ions through anozzle to create a high-speed flow through the crossed magnetic fieldwith a set of electrodes crossed with respect to the deflecting field toreceive the deflected ions. In the present disclosure, the pressure istypically greater than atmospheric, but not necessarily so, and thedirectional mass flow may be achieved by an ignition of a solid fuel toform a highly ionized, radially expanding plasma.

In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter is asegmented Faraday generator. In another embodiment, the transversecurrent formed by the Lorentzian deflection of the ion flow undergoesfurther Lorentzian deflection in the direction parallel to the inputflow of ions (z-axis) to produce a Hall voltage between at least a firstelectrode and a second electrode relatively displaced along the z-axis.Such a device is known in the art as a Hall generator embodiment of amagnetohydrodynamic power converter. In some embodiments, powergeneration system 1020 may include a diagonal generator with a “windowframe” construction having electrodes angled with respect to the z-axisin the xy-plane.

In each case, the voltage may drive a current through an electricalload. As is shown in FIG. 19, a magnetohydrodynamic converter 1006 mayinclude a source of magnetic flux 1101 transverse to the z-axis, and theions may flow in a direction 1102. Thus, the ions may have preferentialvelocity along the z-axis due to a confinement field 1103 provided byHelmholtz coils 1104, causing the ions to propagate into the region ofthe transverse magnetic flux. The Lorentzian force on the propagatingelectrons and ions is given by. The force is transverse to the ionvelocity and the magnetic field and in opposite directions for positiveand negative ions. This may form a transverse current. The source oftransverse magnetic field may include components that provide transversemagnetic fields of different strengths as a function of position alongthe z-axis in order to optimize the crossed deflection of the flowingions having parallel velocity dispersion.

Magnetohydrodynamic power converter 1006 shown in FIG. 19 may alsoinclude at least two electrodes 1105, which may be transverse to themagnetic field to receive the transversely Lorentzian deflected ionsthat create a voltage across the electrodes 1105. The MHD power may bedissipated in an electrical load 1106. Electrodes 1002 of FIGS. 12-16may also serve as MHD electrodes. Magnetohydrodynamic power converter1006 shown in FIG. 19 may also include an additional set of Helmholtzcoils (not shown) to provide the Lorentzian deflecting field to theflowing plasma in the magnetic expansion section to generate a voltageat electrodes 1105 that is applied across load 1106.

In some embodiments of magnetohydrodynamic power converter 1006, theflow of ions along the z-axis with v>>v_(⊥) may then enter a compressionsection. The compression section may include an increasing axialmagnetic field gradient wherein the component of electron motionparallel to the direction of the z-axis v_(∥) is at least partiallyconverted into to perpendicular motion v_(⊥) due to the adiabaticinvariant v_(⊥) ²/B=constant. An azimuthal current due to v_(⊥) may beformed around the z-axis. The current may be deflected radially in theplane of motion by the axial magnetic field to produce a Hall voltage,e.g., between an inner ring and an outer ring electrode of a diskgenerator magnetohydrodynamic power converter. The voltage may drive acurrent through an electrical load. In some embodiments, the plasmapower may also be converted to electricity using an {right arrow over(E)}×{right arrow over (B)} direct converter, or any other suitableplasma converter devices.

As discussed above, to facilitate plasma and ion manipulation andconversion, portions or all of magnetohydrodynamic power converter 1006may exist in a vacuum. For example, pressures within magnetohydrodynamicpower converter 1006 may range from approximately atmospheric pressureto negative pressures of approximately 10⁻¹⁰ Torr or more. In someembodiments, e.g., confinement field 1103 and/or Helmholtz coils 1104may exist in a vacuum environment,

The magnetic field of magnetohydrodynamic power converter 1006 may beprovided by the current of an electrical power source 1004 that may flowthrough additional electromagnets, in addition to flowing to solid fuel1003. In some embodiments, the magnetic field of magnetohydrodynamicpower converter 1006 may be powered by a separate power source.

As described briefly above, power generation system 1020 may include anelectrical power source 1004 configured to deliver a short burst oflow-voltage, high-current electrical energy to solid fuel 1003 viaelectrodes 1002. Any suitable electrical power source 1004 orcombinations of electrical power sources 1004 may be used, for example,a power grid, a generator, a fuel cell, solar, wind, chemical, nuclear,tidal, thermal, hydropower, or mechanical source, a battery, powersource 1020, or another power source 1020. Power source 1004 may includea Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder and an EM Test Model CSS500N10 CURRENT SURGE GENERATOR, 8/20US UP TO 10KA. In some embodiments,electrical power source 1004 is DC, and the plasma power converter issuited to a DC magnetic field, e.g., with a magnetohydrodynamic or{right arrow over (E)}×{right arrow over (B)} power converter.

Electrical power source 1004 may supply high currents to electrodes 1002(and cell 1001, if included), and may supply power to other componentsin power generation system 1020, for example, to any plasma convertersor regeneration systems to convert the products of solid fuel ignitionback into the initial solid fuel that may be recycled.

In some embodiments, electrical power source 1004 may also acceptcurrents, such as the high currents given in the disclosure. Byaccepting current, self-limiting charge build-up from the reaction maybe ameliorated. One or more sources and sinks of current may also beincluded. For example, power generation system 1020 may include one ormore of a transformer circuit, an LC circuit, an RLC circuit,capacitors, ultra-capacitors, inductors, batteries, and other lowimpedance or low resistance circuits or circuit elements and electricalenergy storage elements or any other devices or combination of devicessuitable for accepting currents.

Turning to the exemplary embodiments of FIGS. 20 and 21, powergeneration system 1020 may include other components, in addition to theelectrodes, electrical power source, and plasma-to-electric converters1006 discussed in reference to FIGS. 12-19. For example, powergeneration system 1020 may include a delivery mechanism 1005 fordelivering solid fuel 1003 to fuel loading region 1017 betweenelectrodes 1002. The type of delivery mechanism included in powergeneration system 1020 may depend, at least in part, on the state, type,size, or shape, e.g., of fuel being delivered to fuel loading region1017. For example, in the embodiment of FIG. 20, solid fuel 1003 isdepicted in pellet form. A suitable delivery mechanism 1005 fordelivering a pellet of fuel may include a carousel configured to rotateso as to deliver a pellet to fuel loading region 1017. In the exemplaryembodiment of FIG. 20, delivery mechanism 1005 may carry a number offuel pellets spaced along a peripheral region of the carousel. As thecarousel rotates, consecutive pellets may be delivered to fuel loadingregion 1017 between electrodes 1002.

In some embodiments, the carousel may be pre-loaded with apre-determined number of fuel pellets. While eight pellets are depictedas pre-loaded on the carousel of FIG. 20, any number of pellets may bepre-loaded onto delivery mechanism 1005. The carousel may take the formof a disposable cartridge configured for removal and replacement. Insuch embodiments, delivery mechanism 1005 may further include anindicator for signaling the number of remaining pellets, the number ofused pellets, or when the cartridge needs to be replaced. In someembodiments, the cartridge may be loaded with pellets once in place, ormay be pre-loaded and then loaded again as pellets are used. Forexample, a separate storage and/or loading mechanism may operate inconjunction with delivery mechanism 1005 in order to replace the pelletsonce they are used. In such reloadable or loadable embodiments, thecartridge may be replaceable, disposable, or permanent.

Additionally, delivering pellets of solid fuel 1003 to fuel loadingregion 1017 may include moving a pellet off of the carousel, or maysimply include positioning the pellet between electrodes 1002 while thepellet remains on the carousel. Further, while the pellets on thecarousel in FIG. 20 are depicted as uncovered, the pellets may also behoused within the carousel or partially surrounded, e.g., by an outerwall, by individual partitions between the pellets, or by an overhang.Delivery of a pellet to fuel loading region 1017 may include uncoveringthe delivered pellet or dispensing the pellet from the carousel, forexample. In another embodiment, the carousel in FIG. 20 comprising thepellets may be housed in a vacuum chamber that may also house theelectrodes 1002, the fuel loading region 1017, and the plasma toelectric converter 1006.

In some embodiments, one pellet at a time may be delivered to fuelloading region 1017. In other embodiments, more than one pellet may bedelivered to fuel loading region 1017 before ignition of solid fuel1003. Solid fuel 1003 may be delivered at a constant rate or at avariable rate. The rate of delivery may be capable of being changedeither manually or automatically (e.g., based on feedback or a timedschedule) in order to vary the power output or to maintain asubstantially constant output, for example. Delivery of the fuel may betimed to the movement of electrodes 1002 as they open and close toreceive fuel or as they move to ignite the fuel (in moveable embodimentsor embodiments with moveable compression mechanisms 1002 a).

In the embodiment of FIG. 21, delivery mechanism 1005 is depicted as ahopper or a storage tank for delivering solid fuel 1003. The hopper maydeliver fuel samples, like the pellets shown in FIG. 20, or may delivergranules of solid fuel 1003, e.g., in embodiments in which solid fuel1003 is in powdered form. Powdered fuel may be delivered in individualcapsules, in a manner similar to how pellets are delivered, or may bedelivered as quantities of loose powder. Liquid fuel may be delivered incapsules, or may be delivered as streams, vapor, sprays, or droplets,for example. The hopper may deliver one or more pellets to fuel loadingregion 1017 or may deliver a metered amount or stream of powder orliquid to fuel loading region 1017. As discussed above in reference toFIG. 20, the amount or rate of fuel delivery to fuel loading region 1017may be constant or may vary and may be controlled by any suitable means.

The hopper may include a chute, valve, dropper, or any suitablestructure(s) for directing and/or regulating the flow of solid fuel 1003to fuel loading region 1017. In some embodiments, the hopper may takethe form of a fluid dispenser and may dispense a liquid or gaseous formof solid fuel 1003. In addition, the hopper, or any delivery mechanism1005, may include one or more sensors for detecting a parameter of thesolid fuel or the delivery mechanism. For example, delivery mechanism1005 may be operably coupled to one or more sensors to detect, e.g.,pressure, temperature, fill level, movement, flow speed, or any othersuitable parameters. The sensors may be operably coupled to a display,meter, control system, or any suitable means for communicatingmeasurement data to an external reader or means for regulating powergeneration system 1020 based on the measured parameter. One or moresensors may assist with determining or controlling delivery of an amountof fuel to fluid area 1017, to detecting the overall amount of solidfuel 1003 remaining or used, or a condition of the solid fuel 1003within, for example.

In some embodiments, a hopper may be positioned above fuel loadingregion 1017, so that when a sample of solid fuel 1003 is delivered,gravity causes the solid fuel to drop into fuel loading region 1017. Inother embodiments, a hopper may be situated next to or below fuelloading region 1017 and may be configured to eject or push a sample ofsolid fuel laterally or upwards, against gravity, to deliver solid fuel1003 to fuel loading region 1017. For example, the hopper may include alever, piston, spring, pneumatic, auger, conveyor, hydraulic, orelectrical device or trigger device, or any other suitable mechanism orcombination of mechanisms for actively pushing (as opposed to passivelydropping via gravity) solid fuel 1003 into fuel loading region 1017.

In some powdered embodiments, solid fuel 1003 may flow from an overheadhopper as an intermittent stream, and the timing of the intermittentflow stream may be synchronized to accommodate the dimensions ofelectrodes 1002 as they move away from each other to receive the flowingpowdered or liquid solid fuel 1003 and move closer to each other toignite the fuel stream. Alternatively, fuel delivery may be continuous.

In some powder embodiments, solid fuel 1003 may be in the form a finepowder, for example, a powder that is formed by ball milling (or anyother suitable technique) regenerated or reprocessed fuel. An exemplaryfuel mixture may include, e.g., a transition metal, its oxide, and H₂O.In such embodiments, delivery mechanism 1005 may include a sprayer(e.g., a pneumatic, aerosol, mechanical, or electric sprayer), and thefine powder solid fuel 1003 (e.g., a suspension or mist) may be sprayedinto fuel loading region 1017.

In the embodiment of FIG. 22, a conveyor belt may be used to deliversolid fuel 1003. For example, rather than a carousel, a conveyor beltmay move fuel into loading region 1017. The conveyor belt may bepre-loaded or may be loaded by solid fuel loader 1013 from a fuel source1014 and convey solid fuel 1003 from the source to fuel loading region1017. For example, the loader 1013 may deposit samples of solid fuel1003 from a source 1014 onto the conveyor belt 1005, or the conveyorbelt 1005 may interact with the fuel source to withdraw an amount ofsolid fuel 1003 from the source as it passes by or through the source. Aconveyor belt may extend lateral to fuel loading region 1017 (either inline with, above, or below fuel loading region 1017) or may extendvertical relative to fuel loading region 1017. In vertical embodiments,the conveyor belt may include a series of compartments, scoops, orprojections configured to carry a sample of solid fuel 1003 along thebelt to fuel loading region 1017. In addition, delivery of solid fuel1003 to fuel loading region 1017 may include allowing solid fuel 1003 toremain on the belt or moving solid fuel 1003 off of the belt and intothe loading region.

In still other embodiments, delivery mechanism 1005 may include a screwconveyor with threads configured to move solid fuel 1003, or may includeone or more gears, valves, levers, pulleys, sprayers, fluid dispensers,droppers, or any other suitable delivery mechanism.

Further, any suitable delivery mechanism 1005, or combination ofdelivery mechanisms 1005, may be used to deliver solid fuel 1003 to fuelloading region 1017. For example, a hopper may be used in conjunctionwith a carousel or a conveyor belt in order to load or re-load thecarousel or conveyor belt to replace the delivered fuel, or a conveyorbelt may deliver solid fuel 1003 to a hopper or a carousel.

Additionally, as is shown in FIG. 23, delivery mechanism 1005 maydeliver fuel 1003 to multiple fuel loading regions 1017, e.g., inembodiments in which system 1020 includes multiple sets of electrodes1002 and/or multiple cells 1001. In other embodiments, multiple deliverymechanisms 1005 may serve multiple fuel loading regions 1017, ormultiple delivery mechanisms 1005 may serve a single fuel loading region1017. Such embodiments may allow for increased power generation bysystem 1020.

Power generation system 1020 may also include a removal system forremoving the byproducts of spent fuel from fuel loading region 1017.Byproducts may include spent fuel, unreacted fuel, or any productsformed when reacting solid fuel 1003. The removal system may be separatefrom delivery mechanism 1005, or delivery mechanism 1005 may alsoperform the function of removing spent fuel, in addition to loading theelectrodes with fuel for ignition.

In embodiments in which delivery mechanism 1005 also performs a removalfunction, delivery mechanism 1005 may, e.g., take the form of a conveyorbelt that moves spent fuel out of fuel loading region 1017, which mayalso be the conveyor belt that moves fuel into fuel loading region 1017.In some embodiments, solid fuel 1003 and the conveyor belt may come inthe form of a continuous strip that is only ignited where the currentflows through. In such an embodiments, solid fuel 1003 may refergenerally to a portion of the strip of solid fuel, and new,not-yet-ignited portions of the strip may move into fuel loading region1017 and then out of the fuel loading region 1017, once ignited. Inother strip embodiments, the strip may include packets of powdered fuelor may include pellets of fuel attached to the strip, and as the stripmoves along the conveyor, the packets or pellets may move into loadingregion 1017 for ignition and then may move out of loading region 1017once spent.

In some embodiments, delivery mechanism 1005 may include a carousel thatrotates to deliver solid fuel 1003 into fuel loading region 1017, pausesfor ignition, and then rotates to remove the spent fuel out of the areaand position new solid fuel 1003 to fuel loading region 1017 betweenelectrodes 1002 for the next ignition process. A carousel, or a conveyorbelt, or any delivery mechanism that performs both removal and deliveryfunctions, may be coated with or formed of a suitable material that isresistant to melting or corroding, e.g., a ceramic, quartz, diamond thinfilm, or metal (such as a refractory alloy, a high-temperature,oxidation-resistant alloy [such as TiAlN], or a high-temperaturestainless steel), or any suitable combination thereof. Such materialsmay allow solid fuel 1003 to remain on delivery mechanism 1005 duringignition without substantially compromising the integrity of deliverymechanism 1005. Delivery and/or removal mechanisms that only provide oneof the delivery or removal functions may also be formed of similarcoatings or materials to provide additional protection or to decreasewear, for example.

In embodiments in which the removal system is separate from deliverymechanism 1005, the removal system may include a carousel, conveyorbelt, or any of the mechanisms described in reference to deliverymechanism 1005, and may interact with delivery mechanism 1005 or operateseparately from delivery mechanism 1005. In some embodiments, theremoval system may cause a blast of fluid (e.g., water or air) directedso that spent fuel is expelled from fuel loading region 1017. In otherembodiments, a vacuum may suction spent from fuel loading region 1017,magnets may repel or attract spent fuel from fuel loading region 1017,or an electrostatic collection system may move spent fuel from loadingregion 1017. Electrodes 1002 may also move so that spent fuel may dropout of fuel loading region 1017 due to gravity, for example. A lever,sweeper, rake, hook, scraper, or other mechanical device may push, pull,or lift spent fuel from fuel loading region 1017. Spent fuel or productsmay also be removed from the plasma to electric converter 1006 such as aMHD converter by a similar mechanism.

In still other embodiments, no removal system may be needed, as spentsolid fuel 1003 may be substantially destroyed, vaporized, or otherwise‘used up’ so that there is little or negligible spent fuel remainingafter ignition of solid fuel 1003.

In the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 20, the carousel may act as apartial removal system to move spent fuel out of fuel loading region1017, but may work with an additional removal system 1013 to remove thespent fuel from the carousel once the spent fuel is removed from loadingregion 1017. A removal system 1013 may similarly be used in conjunctionwith a conveyor belt, or any other delivery mechanism 1005 describedabove. Removal system 1013 may also re-load the carousel or otherdelivery mechanism 1005 with unused solid fuel 1003 for introduction toloading region 1017.

Removal system 1013 may also work in conjunction with a regenerationsystem 1014, which may recycle the spent fuel (e.g., into usablecomponents such as fuel and energetic materials). In addition, deliverymechanism 1005 may work in conjunction with removal system 1013 andregeneration 1014, as shown in the exemplary embodiment of FIG. 20.Spent solid fuel may be removed from fuel loading region 1017 bydelivery system 1005, removed from delivery system 1005 by removalsystem 1013, processed by regeneration system 1014, and then deliverysystem 1005 may be refilled with regenerated fuel from regenerationsystem 1014, for example, via removal system 1013, which may also act asa re-loading system. Alternatively, a re-loading system may be separatefrom removal system 1013.

In the embodiment of FIG. 21, solid fuel 1003 may be dispensed fromhopper delivery mechanism 1005 into fuel loading zone 1017. Uponignition by electrodes 1002, solid fuel 1003 may be partially orcompletely vaporized to a gaseous physical state to form plasma duringthe resulting burst or blast reaction event. Once formed, the plasma maypass through plasma-to-electric power converter 1006, and the recombinedplasma may form gaseous atoms and compounds. These gaseous atoms andcompounds may be condensed by a condenser 1015 and collected andconveyed to regeneration system 1014 by removal system 1013. Forexample, removal system 1013 may include a conveyor connection toregeneration system 1014, which may be further connected to the hopperdelivery mechanism 1005. Spent fuel may move from fuel loading zone1017, to condenser 1015 and/or removal system 1013, to regenerationsystem 1014, to a storage component and/or delivery mechanism 1005, andback to zone 1017. Condenser 1015 and removal system 1013 may includeany suitable system or combination of systems to collect and movematerials, including, e.g., an electrostatic collection system, anauger, a conveyor, a carousel, or a pneumatic (e.g., vacuum or positivepressure) system.

In some embodiments, electrical power source 1004 may power removalsystem 1013 and/or regeneration system 1014. Power generation system1020 may further include output power terminals 1009 configured todirect power generated by plasma-to-electric power converter 1006. Aportion of the electrical power output at terminals 1009 may be suppliedto removal system 1013 and/or regeneration system 1014 and/or condenser1015 to provide electrical power and energy to propagate the chemicalreactions needed to regenerate the original solid fuel 1003 from thereaction products. Power from output terminals 1009 may also be used tosupply any suitable component of power generation system 1020. In anexemplary embodiment of a solid fuel comprising a metal oxide, and metalresistant to reaction with H₂O, and H₂O, regeneration comprisesrehydration of the product.

Power generation system 1020 may also include a temperature regulationsystem. For example, a cooling system may remove heat from system 1020produced by ignition of solid fuel 1003. As shown in FIGS. 20-25, system1020 optionally includes a heat exchanger 1010. In the exemplaryembodiment of FIG. 24, a portion of the heat from heat exchanger 1010may be transferred to regeneration system 1014 by coolant lines 1011 and1012. Heat within regeneration system 1014 may provide thermal power andenergy to propagate the chemical reactions to regenerate the originalsolid fuel 1003 from the reaction products. In some embodiments, aportion of the output power from plasma-to-electric converter 1006 mayalso be used to power regeneration system 1014.

Regeneration system 1014 may regenerate solid fuel 1003 using anysuitable reactions or combination of reactions, including any of thosedescribed in the Chemical Reactor section and the Solid Fuel CatalystInduced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell section, for example, theaddition of H₂, H₂O, thermal regeneration, or electrolytic regeneration.Due to the very large energy gain of the reaction relative to the inputenergy to initiate the reaction, which in some embodiments, may be 100times in the case of NiOOH (e.g., 5.5 kJ out compared to 46 J input),the products (such as Ni₂O₃ and NiO) may be converted to hydroxide, andthen to oxyhydroxide, by electrochemical reactions and/or chemicalreactions. In other embodiments, metals, such as Ti, Gd, Co, In, Fe, Ga,Al, Cr, Mo, Cu, Mn, Zn, and Sm, and the corresponding oxides,hydroxides, and oxyhydroxides, e.g., may substitute for Ni. Solid fuel1003 may also include a metal oxide and H₂O, and the corresponding metalas a conductive matrix. The product may be metal oxide. The solid fuelmay be regenerated by hydrogen reduction of a portion of the metal oxideto the metal that is then mixed with the oxide that has been rehydrated.Suitable metals having oxides that can readily be reduced to the metalswith mild heat, such as less than approximately 1000° C., and hydrogeninclude, e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os,Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr,and In, or a combination thereof.

In another embodiment, solid fuel 1003 may include (1) an oxide that isnot easily reduced with H₂ and mild heat, e.g., alumina, an alkalineearth oxide, and a rare earth oxide, (2) a metal having an oxide capableof being reduced to the metal with H₂ at moderate temperatures, e.g.,less than approximately 1000° C., and (3) H₂O. An exemplary fuel isMgO+Cu+H₂O. The mixture of H₂ reducible and nonreducible oxide may betreated with H₂ and heated at mild conditions so that only the reduciblemetal oxide is converted to metal. This mixture may be hydrated tocomprise regenerated fuel. An exemplary fuel is MgO+Cu+H₂O; wherein theproduct MgO+CuO undergoes H₂ reduction treatment to yield MgO+Cu, whichis hydrated to the fuel.

In another embodiment, the reactant may be regenerated from the productby the addition of H₂O. For example, the fuel or energetic material mayinclude H₂O and a conductive matrix, and regeneration may include theaddition of H₂O to the spent fuel. The addition of H₂O to regenerate thespent fuel and form solid fuel 1003 may be continuous or intermittent.In other embodiments, a metal/metal oxide reactant may include a metalthat has low reactivity with H₂O corresponding to the oxide beingcapable of being reduced to the metal. A suitable exemplary metal havinglow H₂O reactivity is one chosen from, e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd,Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W,Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, or any combination thereof. The metal may beconverted to the oxide form during the ignition reaction. The oxideproduct corresponding to the metal reactant may be regenerated back tothe initial metal by regeneration system 1014, which may includehydrogen reduction by systems, e.g., and other suitable systems. Thehydrogen may be supplied by the electrolysis of H₂O. In anotherembodiment, the metal is regenerated from the oxide by carbon reduction,reduction with a reductant (such as, e.g., a more oxygen active metal),or by electrolysis (such as, e.g., electrolysis in a molten salt). Theformation of the metal from the oxide may be achieved by any suitablesystems and methods known by those skilled in the art.

In other embodiments, a hydrated metal/metal oxide solid fuel mayinclude a metal that has low reactivity with H₂O corresponding to theoxide not being form during ignition. A suitable exemplary metal havinglow H₂O reactivity is one chosen from, e.g., Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd,Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os, Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W,Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr, and In or any combination thereof. Theproduct comprising unreacted metal and metal oxide is rehydrated to formthe regenerated solid fuel. In another embodiment, the solid fuelcomprises carbon that comprises H₂O. The carbon product condensed fromthe plasma may be rehydrated to reform the solid in a regenerativecycle.

It may be possible to use solid fuel 1003 once and not use aregeneration step. For example, carbon comprising H and O (e.g., steamcarbon or activated carbon) may be a suitable exemplary reactant orsolid fuel 1003 that may be consumed without regeneration. In suchembodiments, power generation system 1020 may not include regenerationsystem 1014 or a condenser 1015.

The mechanical actions described above in reference to deliverymechanism 1005, removal system 1013, or regeneration system 1014 may beeffected by any suitable systems known to those skilled in the art,including, e.g., pneumatic, solenoidal, or electric motor actionsystems. In addition, delivery mechanism 1005, removal system 1013, orregeneration system 1014 may be powered separately from or incombination with electrical power source 1004, output power terminals1009, and any additional power sources for any of the other componentsin power generation system 1020.

An exemplary power generation process may proceed as follows. Ignitionof the reactants of a given solid fuel 1003 yields plasma.Plasma-to-electric converter 1006 may generate electricity from theplasma. Plasma-to-electric converter 1006 may further include acondenser of the plasma products and a conveyor to delivery mechanism1005. The products may then be transported by delivery mechanism 1005,e.g., a carousel, to a removal system 1013 that conveys the productsfrom delivery mechanism 1005 to regeneration system 1014. Inregeneration system 1014, the spent solid fuel may be regenerated intothe original reactants or solid fuel 1003 and then directed back todelivery mechanism 1005 via removal system 1013 or a separate reloadingcomponent.

The ignition of solid fuel 1003 generates an output plasma and thermalpower. The plasma power may be directly converted to electricity byplasma-to-electric power converter 1006, as discussed above. As is shownin the embodiment of FIG. 25, at least some power may be also bediverted and stored in a storage device 1018 included in system 1020.Storage device 1018 may store any suitable form of energy, including,for example, electrical, chemical, or mechanical energy. Storage device1018 may include, e.g., a capacitor, a high-current transformer, abattery, a flywheel, or any other suitable power storage device orcombination thereof. Storage device 1018 may be included in system 1020,for example, to store power generated by plasma-to-electric powerconverter 1006 for later use by system 1020, for later use by anotherdevice (e.g., an external load), or to dampen any intermittence. System1020 may be configured to re-charge or fill storage device 1018, whichmay then be removed once filled and connected to a separate device tosupply power. System 1020 may optionally include a storage deviceconfigured to accept and store some or all of the power generated bysystem 1020 for later use by system 1020, for example, as a back-uppower supply. As is shown in FIG. 25, storage device 1018 may beelectrically connected to output power conditioner 1007 and electricalpower source 1004. This may allow a portion of power generated by system1020 to be fed back into system 1020 via power source 1004, where it maybe used, for example, to power electrodes 1002 or any other suitablecomponent of system 1020. In other embodiments, storage device 1018 maynot accept power generated by system 1020 and may instead only supplypower to system 1020. Further, in lieu of, or in addition to, storagedevice 1018, system 1020 may be electrically connected to an externaldevice or power grid so that power generated by system 1020 may directlypower a separate device or directly supply power to a separate powergrid. In some embodiments, the electrical output from a cell 1001 ofsystem 1020 may deliver a short burst of low-voltage, high-currentelectrical energy that ignites the fuel of another cell, reusing thegenerated power to fuel system 1020 without the use of storage device1018. Further, electrical power source 1004 may include its own storagedevice 1018 for accepting power from system 1020 to utilize whensupplying power to system 1020, as in the embodiment of FIG. 25.

Each electrode 1002 and/or cell 1001 also outputs thermal power that maybe extracted from heat exchanger 1010 by inlet and out coolant lines1011 and 1012, respectively. The thermal power may be used as heatdirectly or may be converted to electricity. Power generation system1020 may further include a thermal-to-electric converter. The conversionmay be achieved using any suitable power converter, e.g., a power plant(e.g., conventional Rankine or Brayton), a steam plant with a boiler, asteam turbine, a generator, or a gas turbine with a generator. Exemplaryreactants, regeneration reaction and systems, and power converters aredescribed, for example, in International Application Nos.PCT/US08/61455, PCT/US09/052072, PCT/US10/27828, PCT/US11/28889,PCT/US12/31369, and PCT/US13/041938, each of which is hereinincorporated by reference in its entirety. Other suitable powerconverters may include, e.g., thermionic and thermoelectric powerconverters and heat engines (such as Stirling engines). Heat exchanger1010 may be used to cool electrodes 1002, plasma-to-electric converter1006, fuel loading region 1017, or any suitable component of system1020.

Electrical power generated by power generation system 1020 may furtherbe conditioned by an output power conditioner 1007 connected toplasma-to-electric converter 1006 by power connector 1008. Output powerconditioner 1007 may alter the quality of the generated power to becompatible with the internal or external electrical load equipment thepower is being delivered to. The quality of the generated power mayinclude current, voltage, frequency, noise/coherence, or any othersuitable quality. Output power conditioner 1007 and power flow fromplasma to electric converter 1006 connected by power connector 1008 maybe adjustable in order to vary the conditioning of the power, forexample, to reflect changes in the electrical load equipment or thepower generated by system 1020. The conditioners may perform one or morefunctions, including, e.g., power level, voltage regulation, powerfactor correction, noise suppression, or transient impulse protection.In an exemplary embodiment, output power conditioner 1007 may conditionthe power generated by system 1020 to a desired waveform, e.g., 60 Hz ACpower, to maintain a more constant voltage over varying loads.

Once conditioned, the generated power may be passed from conditioner1007 to a load through output terminals 1009. Though two powerconnectors 1008 to two plasma to electric converters 1006 and one outputpower conditioner 1007 are depicted in the exemplary figures, anysuitable number and arrangement of these devices may be incorporatedinto system 1020. Further, any number and arrangement of output powerterminals 1009 may be included in power generation system 1020.

In some embodiments, as discussed above, a portion of the power outputat power output terminals 1009 may be used to power electrical powersource 1004, for example, providing about 5-10 V, 10,000-40,000 A DCpower. MHD and PDC power converters may output low-voltage, high-currentDC power capable of re-powering electrodes 1002 to cause ignition ofsubsequently supplied fuel. In some embodiments, a supercapacitor or abattery may be used to start cell 1001 by supplying the power for theinitial ignition so that power for subsequent ignitions is provided byoutput power conditioner 1007, which may in turn be powered byplasma-to-electric power converter 1006.

Additionally, thermal power may be extracted by heat exchanger 1010 withcoolant flowing through inlet line 1011 and outlet line 1012. Additionalheat exchangers are anticipated such as one or more on the walls of thevessel 1001 or the plasma to electric converter such as a MHD converter1006. The heat exchangers may each comprise a water-wall type, orcomprise a type wherein the coolant is contained and circulated inlines, pipes, or channels. The heat may be transferred to a heat load orto a thermal-to-electric power converter. The output power from thethermal-to-electric converter may be used to power a load, and a portionmay be used to power electrical power source 1004.

Power generation system 1020 may further include a control system 1030,which may be part of system 1020 or may be separate and/or remove fromsystem 1020. Control system 1030 may monitor system 1020 and/or mayautomate portions or all of system 1020. For example, control system1030 may control the timing of ignition, the amount of current orvoltage used to cause ignition, the speed of delivery mechanism 1005and/or the timing or amount of fuel delivered or removed from fuelloading region 1017, the positioning and/or movement of electrodes 1002,the regeneration of fuel, the flow of generated power within system 1020(e.g., to power one or more components or to store in a storage device),the flow of generated power out of system 1020, to initiate cooling orheating of system 1020, to monitor one or more parameters of system 1020(e.g., temperature, pressure, fill level, power generation parameterslike current and voltage, magnetic fields, motion, maintenanceindicators, or any other suitable parameter), to turn on or off system1020, to initiate a safety mechanism or a standby mode, or to controlany other suitable function of system 1020. In some embodiments, controlsystem 1030 may only monitor system 1020.

Power generation system 1020 may also include one or more measuringdevices 1025 operably coupled to one or more components of system 1020and configured to measure a suitable parameter. While FIG. 20 depictsone measuring device 1025 located on power output terminals 1009, one ormore measuring devices 1025 may be operably coupled to any suitablecomponent in system 1020 and may be located within, on, or near anysuitable component of power generation system 1020, in any suitablelocation. Measuring devices 1025 may be operably coupled to a display, ameter, control system 1030, or any suitable means for communicatingmeasurement data to an external reader. Measuring devices 1025 mayinclude sensors, such as those to detect temperature, pressure, filllevel, power generation parameters (e.g., current, voltage), magneticfields, motion, maintenance indicators, or any other suitableparameters. These sensors may be configured to warn an operator ofsystem 1020 or control system 1030 of certain conditions that arepresent or are possible with regards to system 1020, e.g., by audio orvisual alert. In some embodiments, sensors working in conjunction withsystem 1020 may form a feedback system to facilitate automation ofsystem 1020 based on one or more sensed parameters. In some embodiments,one or more parameters measured by measuring device 1025 may initiate anemergency shutoff or a standby mode, e.g., if one or more parameters isdetected as being above or below a pre-determined cutoff threshold, toprevent damage to system 1020 or the surrounding area, or to facilitatemaintenance or repairs.

Control system 1030 and/or measuring devices 1025 may be incommunication with any suitable component of system 1020, with controlmechanisms within system 1020 to facilitate automation, or with aprocessor or a display. Control system 1030 may include a processoroperatively connected to power generation system 1020. A processor mayinclude, e.g., a Programmable Logic Controller (PLC), a ProgrammableLogic Relay (PLR), a Remote Terminal Unit (RTU), a Distributed ControlSystem (DCS), a printed circuit board (PCB), or any other type ofprocessor capable of controlling power generation system 1020. A displaymay be operably connected to control system 1030 and may include anytype of device (e.g., CRT monitors, LCD screens, etc.) capable ofgraphically depicting information. Measuring devices 1025 and/or controlsystem 1030 may be directly connected to each other and/or components ofsystem 1020 (e.g., through hard wiring) or may be wirelessly connected(e.g., WiFi, Bluetooth). Further, power generation system 1020,measuring devices 1025, and/or control system 1030 may be configured tocommunicate with remote devices, e.g., a smart phone or remote powercontrol facility, to allow for remote monitoring and/or control ofsystem 1020. Further, if power generation system 1020 is wholly orpartially automated, system 1020 may also include a manual override,which may be activated remotely and/or on site.

In some embodiments, power generation system 1020 may operateautonomously or semi-autonomously. For example, system 1020 may produceenough power to power itself for continued operation. System 1020 maygenerate enough power to supply power to a storage device included insystem 1020, which may be used as a back-up power supply in the eventthat the main power supply is cut off or when supplied power is low.System 1020 may also generate enough power to power an external loaddevice while providing enough power to itself to continue operation fora period of time without receiving power from an external power source.Such embodiments of system 1020, particularly when combined with controlsystem 1030, may allow power generation system 1020 to be partially orentirely self-sufficient and autonomous such as optionally independentof a grid or a traditional fossil fuels infrastructure.

Such self-sufficient embodiments may be useful in providing power tohard-to-access locations or locations in which power supplies areinconsistent or unpredictable, or for other stand-alone or home uses.For example, power generation system 1020 may be set up in a remotelocation and then left and monitored remotely, if at all, while system1020 continues to operate over time, generating enough power to operate(either intermittently as needed or continuously), while also producingextra power for supplying to a load. Control system 1030 may control oneor more components of system 1020 to buffer power generation to, e.g.,operate independently of an external power source. In such autonomousand/or semi-autonomous embodiments, power generation system 1020 mayinclude a regeneration system, as discussed above, to allow all or mostof the fuel reactants to be reused, so that reactants need to bereplenished less frequently, if at all. In addition, in embodiments thatrequire water as a fuel or reactant for regeneration of the solid fuelor energetic material, power generation system 1020 may include, e.g., awater collection component configured to collect water from thesurrounding environment to fuel system 1020. The water collectioncomponent may comprise a hydroscopic material such as one of thedisclosure to extract H₂O from the ambient atmosphere.

Autonomous, semi-autonomous, or non-autonomous embodiments of thepresent disclosure may be used to power an external load. Embodiments ofthe present disclosure may be used to power household items (e.g.,heating or cooling systems, appliances, electronics, etc.), vehicles(e.g., cars, trucks, planes, forklifts, trains, boats, motorcycles,etc.), for industrial uses, as local power stations or generators, fortelecommunications such as data centers, or for any suitableapplication. Various exemplary embodiments may use different types offuel (e.g., water-based solid fuels comprising mostly H₂O and those thatare highly conductive due to a conductive component of the solid fuel),different ignition parameters, and/or different configurations of systemcomponents in order to generate the appropriate amount of power fordifferent applications powering various external loads. Some exemplarydevices and their general exemplary power usages are provided below todemonstrate exemplary ranges of power that a power generation system1020 may be configured to output. Additionally, autonomous orsemi-autonomous power generation systems 1020 may generate more powerthan what is required for a given use in order to supply surplus powerto redirect back to system 1020 to power operation of the system. Largerpower systems can be achieved by configuring or connecting a pluralityof modular power generation systems 1020. The connections may be inseries, parallel, or combinations thereof to achieve the desiredvoltage, current, and power of the aggregated unit.

Appliance Watts Appliance Watts Appliance Watts Central air 5,000Electric clothes 3,400 Well pump (1/3-1   480-1,200 conditioner dryerHP) Humidifier 300-1,000 Water heater (40 5,000 Satellite dish 30gallon) Fan   100 Stereo 70-400 Cell phone 2-4 charger Portable heater1,500 100 watt   100 Commercial 20-50 kW incandescent bulb generatorTrain 10 MW Ship 10 MW Plane 100 MW

X. Additional Mechanical Power Generation Embodiments

In one embodiment of the present disclosure, a system is provided forproducing mechanical power. The system can include an electrical powersource of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured toproduce at least one of plasma and thermal power, and a fuel deliverydevice configured to deliver a solid fuel of the present disclosure tothe ignition chamber. Exemplary solid fuels suitable for the ignition ofwater or water-based fuel source (referring to solid fuel or energeticmaterials of the present disclosure) to generate mechanical power aregiven in the Internal SF-CIHT Cell Engine section of the presentdisclosure. Each of the embodiments disclosed in this section can employthe solid fuels of the present disclosure. The system can also include apair of electrodes coupled to the power source and configured to supplypower to the solid fuel to produce the plasma, and a piston locatedwithin the ignition chamber and configured to move relative to theignition chamber to output mechanical power.

In another aspect, the system can include an electrical power source ofat least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of plasma and thermal power, and a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a solid fuel of the present disclosure to theignition chamber. The system can also include a pair of electrodescoupled to the electrical power source and configured to supplyelectrical power to the solid fuel to produce the plasma, and a turbinein fluid communication with the outlet port and configured to rotate tooutput mechanical power.

In another aspect, the system can include an electrical power sourcecapable of at least about 5,000 A, and an impeller configured to rotateto output mechanical power, wherein the impeller can include a hollowregion configured to produce at least one of plasma and thermal powerand the hollow region can include an intake port configured to receive aworking fluid. The system can further include a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a solid fuel of the present disclosure to thehollow region, and a pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical powersource and configured to supply power to the hollow region to ignite thesolid fuel and produce the plasma.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, and a moveable element configured to rotateto output mechanical power, wherein the moveable element at leastpartially defines an ignition chamber configured to produce at least oneof plasma and thermal power. Also, the system can include a fueldelivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the ignitionchamber, and a pair of electrodes coupled to the power source andconfigured to supply power to the solid fuel to produce the plasma.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, and a plurality of ignition chambers, whereineach of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to produce atleast one of plasma and thermal power. The system also includes a fueldelivery device configured to deliver a solid fuel to the plurality ofignition chambers, and a plurality of electrodes coupled to the powersource, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes isassociated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers andconfigured to supply power to the solid fuel to produce the plasma.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of arc plasma and thermal power, and a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber. Thesystem can further include a pair of electrodes coupled to the powersource and configured to supply power to the fuel to produce the arcplasma, and a piston fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber andconfigured to move relative to the ignition chamber to output mechanicalpower.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of arc plasma and thermal power, wherein the ignition chamberincludes an outlet port, and a fuel delivery device configured todeliver a water-based fuel to the ignition chamber. Also included can bea pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source andconfigured to supply power to the fuel to produce the arc plasma, and aturbine in fluid communication with the outlet port and configured torotate to output mechanical power.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, an impeller configured to rotate to outputmechanical power, wherein the impeller includes a hollow regionconfigured to produce at least one of arc plasma and thermal power andthe hollow region includes an intake port configured to receive aworking fluid, a fuel delivery device configured to deliver awater-based fuel to the hollow region, and a pair of electrodes coupledto the electrical power source and configured to supply power to thehollow region to ignite the water-based fuel and produce the arc plasma.

In another embodiment, the system can include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, a plurality of ignition chambers, whereineach of the plurality of ignition chambers is configured to produce atleast one of arc plasma and thermal power, a fuel delivery deviceconfigured to deliver a water-based fuel to the plurality of ignitionchambers, and a plurality of electrodes coupled to the electrical powersource, wherein at least one of the plurality of electrodes isassociated with at least one of the plurality of ignition chambers andconfigured to supply electrical power to the water-based fuel to producethe arc plasma.

In another embodiment, an ignition chamber can include a shell defininga hollow chamber configured to create at least plasma, an arc plasma,and thermal power, a fuel receptacle in fluid communication with thehollow chamber, wherein the fuel receptacle is electrically coupled to apair of electrodes, and a moveable element in fluid communication withthe hollow chamber.

In another embodiment, the ignition chamber can include a shell defininga hollow chamber, and an injection device in fluid communication withthe hollow chamber, wherein the injection device is configured to injecta fuel into the hollow chamber. The chamber can further include a pairof electrodes electrically coupled to the hollow chamber and configuredto supply electrical power to the fuel sufficient to produce at leastone of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power in the hollow chamber, anda moveable element in fluid communication with the hollow chamber.

In another embodiment, a method of producing mechanical power caninclude delivering a solid fuel to an ignition chamber, and passing acurrent of at least about 5,000 A through the solid fuel and applying avoltage of less than about 10 V to the solid fuel to ignite the solidfuel and produce at least one of plasma and thermal power. The methodcan also include mixing the thermal power with a working fluid, anddirecting the working fluid toward a moveable element to move themoveable element and output mechanical power wherein it is implicit inthe present disclosure that the power of plasma and arc plasmaspontaneously decays or converts to thermal power. The thermal power maybe converted to mechanical power by means such as pressure volume work.Plasma may be converted directly to electrical power by a plasma toelectric converter such as those of the present disclosure such as MHDor PDC converters. The electrical power may be converted to mechanicalpower by means such as an electric motor, or the plasma or plasma arcpower may be thermalized and thermal power may be converted tomechanical power by means such as a heat engine wherein the heat may becoupled to pressure volume work.

Another method can include delivering a water-based fuel to an ignitionchamber and passing a current of at least about 10,000 A through thewater-based fuel and applying a voltage of at least about 4 kV to thewater-based fuel to ignite the water-based fuel to produce at least oneof arc plasma and thermal power. Also, the method can include mixing thethermal power with a working fluid and directing the working fluidtoward a moveable element to move the moveable element and outputmechanical power.

Another method can include supplying a solid fuel to an ignitionchamber, supplying at least about 5,000 A to an electrode electricallycoupled to the solid fuel, igniting the solid fuel to produce at leastone of plasma and thermal power in the ignition chamber, and convertingat least some of the at least one of plasma and thermal power intomechanical power.

Another method can include supplying a water-based fuel to an ignitionchamber, supplying at least about 5,000 A to an electrode electricallycoupled to the water-based fuel, igniting the water-based fuel toproduce at least one of arc plasma and thermal power in the ignitionchamber, and converting at least some of the at least one of arc plasmaand thermal power into mechanical power.

A further embodiment of the present disclosure provides a machine forland-based transportation. The machine may include an electrical powersource of at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured toproduce at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, and afuel delivery device configured to deliver a fuel to the ignitionchamber. The machine can also include a pair of electrodes coupled tothe electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuelto produce the at least one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and thethermal power, a moveable element fluidly coupled to the ignitionchamber and configured to move relative to the ignition chamber, and adrive-shaft mechanically coupled to the moveable element and configuredto provide mechanical power to a transportation element.

A further embodiment of the present disclosure provides a machine foraviation transport. The machine may include an electrical power sourceof at least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power, and a fuel deliverydevice configured to deliver a fuel to the ignition chamber. The machinecan also include a pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical powersource and configured to supply power to the fuel to produce the atleast one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and thermal power, a moveableelement fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to moverelative to the ignition chamber, and an aviation element mechanicallycoupled to the moveable element and configured to provide propulsion inan aviation environment.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure provides a machine formarine transport. The machine may include an electrical power source ofat least about 5,000 A, an ignition chamber configured to produce atleast one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power and a fuel deliverydevice configured to deliver a fuel to the ignition chamber. The machinecan also include a pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical powersource and configured to supply power to the fuel to produce the atleast one of the plasma, the arc plasma, and thermal power, a moveableelement fluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to moverelative to the ignition chamber, and a marine element mechanicallycoupled to the moveable element and configured to provide propulsion ina marine environment.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure provides a work machine,which may include an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 A,an ignition chamber configured to produce at least one of plasma, arcplasma, and thermal power, and a fuel delivery device configured todeliver a fuel to the ignition chamber. The work machine can alsoinclude a pair of electrodes coupled to the electrical power source andconfigured to supply power to the fuel to produce the at least one ofthe plasma, the arc plasma, and thermal power, a moveable elementfluidly coupled to the ignition chamber and configured to move relativeto the ignition chamber, and a work element mechanically coupled to themoveable element and configured to provide mechanical power.

In the embodiments according to present disclosure, the electrical powersource can be at least about 10,000 A, such as at least about 14,000 A.In other embodiments according to present disclosure, the electricalpower source can be less than about 100 V, such as less than about 10 V,or less than about 8 V. In additional embodiments according to presentdisclosure, the electrical power source can be at least about 5,000 kW.In further embodiments, the solid fuel can comprise a portion of water,a portion of a water absorbing material, and a portion of a conductingelement, and non-limiting examples include the portion of water being atleast about 30 mole % of the solid fuel, the portion of the waterabsorbing material being at least about 30 mole % of the solid fuel, andthe portion of the conducting element being at least about 30 mole % ofthe solid fuel.

In further embodiments, the systems can include an intake portconfigured to deliver a working fluid to the ignition chamber. Incertain embodiments, the working fluid can include at least one of air,H₂O, and an inert gas, and the working fluid can be delivered to theignition chamber at a pressure of at least one of below atmosphericpressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure. Inaddition, the system can comprise at least one of the pair of electrodesbeing electrically coupled to at least one of the piston and theignition chamber. In certain embodiments, the fuel delivery deviceincludes an injection device configured to inject at least a portion ofthe solid fuel into the ignition chamber, such as the injection devicebeing configured to inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and a solidparticulate into the ignition chamber. In addition, the fuel deliverydevice can include a carousel. In certain embodiments, at least one ofthe fuel delivery device and the pair of electrodes can include areceptacle configured to receive the solid fuel.

Certain embodiments of the present disclosure further include at leastone of a cooling system, a heating system, a vacuum system, and a plasmaconverter. In addition, certain systems can further include aregeneration system configured to at least one of capture, regenerate,and recycle one or more components produced by the ignition of the solidfuel.

In embodiments of the present disclosure, at least one of the pair ofelectrodes can be electrically coupled to at least one of the turbineand the ignition chamber. In addition, the fuel delivery device caninclude an injection device configured to inject at least a portion ofthe solid fuel into the ignition chamber or the injection device can beconfigured to inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and a solidparticulate into the ignition chamber. In certain embodiments, theimpeller can include at least one blade configured to divert a flow ofthe working fluid, and the working fluid includes at least one of air,H₂O, and an inert gas. In other embodiments, the working fluid can bedelivered to the hollow region at a pressure of at least one of belowatmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmosphericpressure.

In embodiments of the present disclosure, at least one of the pair ofelectrodes is electrically coupled to at least one of the impeller andthe hollow region. In addition, the fuel delivery device can include aninjection device configured to inject at least a portion of the solidfuel into the hollow region, and the injection device can be configuredto inject at least one of a gas, a liquid, and a solid particulate intothe hollow region.

In certain embodiments, the moveable element can form at least part of afirst electrode of the pair of electrodes, and a second moveable elementcan form at least part of a second electrode of the pair of electrodes.In embodiments, the moveable element includes a receptacle configured toreceive the fuel, the moveable element can include a nozzle fluidlycoupled to the ignition chamber and configured to direct a flow of atleast one of plasma and thermal power, the moveable element isconfigured to move in at least one of a linear, an arcuate, and arotational direction, and the moveable element includes at least one ofa gear and a roller.

FIG. 26 depicts a mechanical power generation system 2010, according toan exemplary embodiment. System 2010 can be configured to produce atleast one type of mechanical output. Such output can includetranslational movement in one or more linear or rotational directions.For example, generation of mechanical power can include movement ofmoveable elements associated with system 2010, such as, a piston (seeFIG. 28), a turbine (see FIG. 29), a gear (see FIG. 30), or an impeller(see FIGS. 33A, 33B). A moveable element can be configured to move in alinear, an arcuate, a rotational, or in a combination of these or one ormore other directions. Other types of moveable elements may providemechanical power using the ignition processes and components describedherein.

System 2010 can be configured to ignite hydrogen, oxygen, water, or awater-based fuel 2020 (referring to the solid fuels of the presentdisclosure such as those given in the Internal SF-CIHT Cell Enginesection, the Chemical Reactor section, and the Solid Fuel CatalystInduced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter section ofthe present disclosure). Fuel 2020 can include a solid fuel as disclosedin the present disclosure wherein in the present disclosure, it isimplicit that the fuel may comprise other physical states. Inembodiments, the fuel or solid fuel may be at least one state ofgaseous, liquid, solid, slurry, sol gel, solution, mixture, gaseoussuspension, and pneumatic flow. The fuel 2020 can be configured toignite to form plasma. The solid fuel can include a portion of water, aportion of a water absorbing material, and a portion of a conductingelement, as described above. The mole portions of these components canrange from about 1% to about 99%. In some embodiments, the portions caneach be about 30% of the solid fuel. In other embodiments, fuel 2020 caninclude a water-based fuel that may be ignited to form at least one ofarc plasma and thermal power. The water-based fuel can include at least50% water, at least 90% water, or a material comprising water rangingfrom about 1% to 100% mole/mole, vol/vol, or wt/wt. Fuel 2020 mayinclude various forms of material, including a gas, a liquid, and asolid. The liquid can further encompass a range of viscosities, fromvery low to very high viscosities, and may include liquids with slurryor a gel-type consistency. While FIG. 27 shows fuel 2020 in a solid,elongated form, other forms of fuel 2020 are contemplated for use withsystem 2010. As explained below, gas, liquid, or various combinations ofgas, liquid, or solid forms of fuel 2020 may be used with system 2010.For example, fuel 2020 could include a pellet, portion, aliquot, powder,droplet, stream, mist, gas, suspension, or any suitable combinationthereof. Basic reactants may include, among other things, a source of Hand a source of O, and these can form H₂O or H as products orintermediate reaction products.

Fuel 2020 may also include one or more energetic materials of thepresent disclosure also configured to undergo the ignition process (inthe present disclosure solid fuel is also referred to as energeticmaterial due to the high energy yield and also the possibility of highkinetics and corresponding power). Moreover, the energetic material fuel2020 may be conductive. For example, an energetic material may compriseH₂O and at least one of a metal and a metal oxide, and a conductingelement. Energetic material fuel 2020 may comprise multiple physicalforms or states of matter such as at least one of a slurry, solution,emulsion, composite, and compound.

In an embodiment, the fuel 2020 comprises reactants that constitutehydrino reactants of the present disclosure comprising at least onesource of catalyst or a catalyst comprising nascent H₂O, at least onesource of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen, and further comprising atleast one of a conductor and a conductive matrix. In an embodiment, thefuel 2020 comprises at least one of a source of a solid fuel orenergetic material of the current disclosure and a solid fuel orenergetic material of the current disclosure. In an embodiment,exemplary solid fuels 2020 comprise a source of H₂O and a conductivematrix to form at least one of the source of catalyst, the catalyst, thesource of atomic hydrogen, and the atomic hydrogen. The H₂O source maycomprise at least one of bulk H₂O, a state other than bulk H₂O, acompound or compounds that undergo at least one of react to form H₂O andrelease bound H₂O. The bound H₂O may comprise a compound that interactswith H₂O wherein the H₂O is in a state of at least one of absorbed H₂O,bound H₂O, physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration. The fuel 2020 maycomprise a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergoat least one of release of bulk H₂O, absorbed H₂O, bound H₂O,physisorbed H₂O, and waters of hydration, and have H₂O as a reactionproduct. Further exemplary solid or energetic material fuels 2020 are ahydrated hydroscopic material and a conductor; hydrated carbon; hydratedcarbon and a metal; a mixture of a metal oxide, a metal or carbon, andH₂O; and a mixture of a metal halide, a metal or carbon, and H₂O. Themetal and metal oxide may comprise a transition metal such as Co, Fe,Ni, and Cu. The metal of the halide may comprise an alkaline earth metalsuch as Mg or Ca and a halide such as F, Cl, Br or I. The metal may havea thermodynamically unfavorable reaction with H₂O such as at least oneof the group of Cu, Ni, Pb, Sb, Bi, Co, Cd, Ge, Au, Ir, Fe, Hg, Mo, Os,Pd, Re, Rh, Ru, Se, Ag, Tc, Te, Tl, Sn, W, Al, V, Zr, Ti, Mn, Zn, Cr,and In wherein the fuel 2020 may be regenerated by addition of H₂O. Thefuel 2020 that constitute hydrino reactants may comprise at least one ofa slurry, solution, emulsion, composite, and a compound.

System 2010 can also include one or more electrodes. For example, system2010 can include a pair of electrodes 2030. Electrodes 2030 can includemoveable components, such as, for example, gears, cogs, rollers, orother components configured for movement in one or more directions,including rotational, arcuate, or linear movement. Electrodes 2030 canalso include one or more electrodes that are stationary and one or moreelectrodes that move. All electrodes may be stationary or moveable. Forexample, electrodes 2030 can be configured to permit fuel 2020 to movelinearly or rotate relative to electrodes 2030 while electrodes 2030remain stationary. Electrodes 2030 may also be configured to wear.

In general, electrodes 2030 can be configured to interact with fuel 2020such that a current can be applied across fuel 2020. The fuel may behighly conductive. Fuel 2020 may be ignited by the application of thehigh current, which may range of about 2,000 A to 100,000 A. The voltagemay be low such as in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. Alternatively,the fuel such as H₂O with or without minor additives comprising non-H₂Omatter may have a high resistance. Ignition may also be achieved by theapplication of sufficient high voltage and current to electrodes 2030.For example, as 1 kV to 50 kV across electrodes 2030. Such an ignitionprocess may form at least one of plasma, arc plasma, a similar form ofmatter, and heated matter. Light, heat, and other reactions products mayalso be formed.

Electrodes 2030 are configured to apply an electrical pulse to fuel2020. Specifically, electrodes 2030 can be designed to permitapplication of a high-intensity current flow, a low-intensity orhigh-intensity voltage appropriate for the resistance of the fuel toachieve high current, or other high-intensity power flow across fuel2020. As explained below, one or more electrodes 2030 may be coupled toa moveable or a stationary component. For example, one or moreelectrodes may be coupled to a piston, a turbine, a gear, an impeller,or other moveable element. One or more other electrodes may be coupledto an ignition chamber, or hollow region, conduit associated with theignition chamber or hollow region, or another stationary part of system2010.

Electrodes 2030 may be formed from suitable material having specificdimensions to accommodate the one or more electrical pulses. Electrodes2030 may also require insulation, cooling, and control mechanisms tooperate as required. It is contemplated that a high AC, DC, or an AC-DCmixture of current can be applied across electrodes 2030. Current canrange from approximately 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, or 10kA to 50 kA, and the DC or peak AC current density may range fromapproximately 100 A/cm² to 1,000,000 A/cm², 1,000 A/cm² to 100,000A/cm², or 2,000 A/cm² to 50,000 A/cm². The DC or peak AC voltage mayrange from about 0.1 V to 50 kV, 1 kV to 20 kV, 0.1 V to 15 V, or 1 V to15 V. The AC frequency may range from about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, or 100 Hz to 10 kHz. And pulse time may rangefrom about 10⁻⁶ s to 10 s, 10⁻⁵ s to 1 s, 10⁻⁴ s to 0.1 s, or 10⁻³ s to0.01 s.

It is also contemplated that electrodes 2030 may apply a 60 Hz voltagewith less than a 15 V peak, a current between approximately 10,000 A/cm²and 50,000 A/cm² peak, and a power between approximately 10,000 W/cm²and 750,000 W/cm². A wide range of frequencies, voltages, currents, andpowers may be applied. For example, ranges of about 1/100 times to 100times the afore-mentioned parameters may also be suitable. Inparticular, fuel may be ignited by a low-voltage, high-current pulse,such as one created by a spot welder, achieved by confinement betweentwo copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder.The 60 Hz voltage may be about 5 to 20 V RMS, and the current andcurrent densities through the fuel 2020 may be about 10,000 A to 40,000A, and 10,000 A/cm² to 40,000 A/cm², respectively.

System 2010 can also include other systems, devices, or components. Forexample, system 2010 can include a cooling system 2040, a fuel deliverydevice 2050, a regeneration system 2060, and an electrical power source2070. Cooling system 2040 may be configured to cool one or morecomponents of system 2010, such as, for example, electrodes 2030. Fueldelivery device 2050 may be configured to deliver fuel 2020 toelectrodes 2030. Regeneration system 2060 may be configured toregenerate one or more materials associated with fuel 2020. For example,forms of a metal contained within fuel 2020 may be captured, recycled,and returned to fuel delivery device 2050.

Electrical power source 2070 may be configured to supply electrodes 2030with power, such as electrical power. In some aspects, power source 2070can be configured to supply sufficient power to produce plasma. Forexample, power source 2070 can be at least about 10,000 A, at leastabout 14,000 A, less than about 100 V, less than about 10 V, less thanabout 8 V, or at least about 5,000 kW. In other aspects, power source2070 can be configured to supply sufficient power to produce arc plasma.For example, power source 2070 can be at least about 10,000 A, at leastabout 12,000 A, at least about 1 kV, at least about 2 kV, at least about4 kV, or at least about 5,000 kW.

As shown in FIG. 27, system 2010 can also include an ignition chamber2080 where fuel 2020 is reacted to form at least one of plasma, arcplasma, or thermal power. As explained below, system 2010 can includeone or more ignition chambers 2080. Chamber 2080 can be formed of ametal or other suitable material capable of withstanding the forces andtemperatures associated with water ignition or at least one of plasmaand thermal power formation. Chamber 2080 can include a generallycylindrical conduit configured to provide an environment suitable forigniting water. Chamber 2080 can be variously shaped, sized, orconfigured for different applications.

As explained below, chamber 2080 can be configured to operate with oneor more moveable elements configured to output mechanical power. Chamber2080 can also include one or more ports, cams, injection devices, orother components configured to permit a fluid to enter or exit chamber2080. In particular, chamber 2080 can include an intake port configuredto permit delivery of a fluid to chamber 2080. Chamber 2080 can alsoinclude an outlet port configured to permit a fluid to exit from chamber2080. Such ports may be configured to operate with a working fluidconfigured to operate in conjunction with at least one of plasma, arcplasma, and thermal power to provide mechanical power. The working fluidmay include air, an inert gas, or another fluid capable of operatingwith at least one of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power. The workingfluid or any other type of fluid may be delivered to chamber 2080 in apressurized state. In particular, a fluid could be delivered to chamber2080 at a pressure below atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure,or above atmospheric pressure. Various components, such as, aturbocharger or supercharger could be used to pressurize a fluid beforesupplying the fluid to chamber 2080.

Ignition chamber 2080 can also include a shell defining a hollow chamberconfigured to create at least at least one of plasma, arc plasma, andthermal power. Chamber 2080 can also include a fuel receptacle in fluidcommunication with the hollow chamber. The fuel receptacle may beelectrically coupled to a pair of electrodes. Chamber 2080 can alsoinclude a moveable element in fluid communication with the hollowchamber.

FIG. 28 depicts ignition chamber 2080, according to an exemplaryembodiment. As shown, chamber 2080 includes a piston 2090 configured toconvert part of the energy provided by the ignition of fuel 2020 intomechanical power. Piston 2090 can be configured for reciprocatingmovement within a combustion chamber, such as, chamber 2080. In otherembodiments, piston 2090 can undergo reciprocating movement in acombustion chamber fluidly connected to chamber 2080. Piston 2090 canalso be dimensioned and designed to operate in various combustionenvironments and with various combustible fuels. Moreover, piston 2090can be formed from a range of materials, depending on the type andrequirements of the combustion process. As explained in more detailbelow, other types of moveable elements may also be used to providemechanical power. In addition, system 2010 could be modified to operateas a Stirling engine.

For example, as shown in FIG. 29, a turbine 2100 may be in fluidcommunication with the output from one or more chambers 2080 to providerotational power. System 2010 shown in FIG. 29 may include othercomponents, such as, for example, one or more additional turbines, or acompressor, mixing chamber, expander blower, air intake, supercharger,reformer, cooler, motor, generator, recuperator, recirculator, heatexchanger, damper, or exhaust. As such, system 2010 could be configuredas a Brayton-type engine, or modification thereof. Other components,devices, and systems may be integrated with system 2010 or used inconjunction with system 2010 to provide mechanical power.

FIG. 30 depicts electrodes 2030 including an anode 2110 and a cathode2120, according to an exemplary embodiment. As shown, anode 2110 andcathode 2120 are configured to rotate. Accordingly, electrodes 2030 caninclude a gear 2125. Cathode 2120 is also shown with a pellet 2130 offuel 2020 associated with a gear tooth 2140. Fuel delivery device 2050can position pellet 2130 relative to gear tooth 2140, for example, at atip of gear tooth 2140. In other embodiments (not shown), pellet 2130could be located at least partially between adjacent gear teeth 2140 orlocated on anode 2110.

Cathode 2120 or fuel 2020 could be coupled to each other using anysuitable mechanisms. For example, mechanical graspers (not shown) couldbe used to couple pellet 2130 to gear tooth 2140. Fuel 2020 in liquidform could couple to cathode 2120 via surface tension. Magnetic andother forces could also be used.

Fuel 20 or pellet 2130 may be moved about system 2010 using varioustransport mechanisms. For example, mechanical mechanisms (e.g., anauger, roller, spiral, gear, conveyer belt, etc.) may be used. It isalso contemplated that pneumatic, hydraulic, electrostatic,electrochemical, or other mechanisms may be used. Fuel 2020 and adesired region of gear teeth 2140 of electrodes 2030 may be oppositelyelectrostatically charged such that fuel 2020 flows into andelectrostatically sticks to the desired region of one or both electrodes2030. Fuel 2020 can be subsequently ignited when opposing teeth 2140mesh. In another embodiment, the rollers or gears 2125 maintain tensiontowards each other by biasing mechanisms, such as, for example, byspring loading, or by pneumatic or actuation. The meshing of teeth 2140and compression of fuel 2020 there between may cause electrical contactbetween the mating teeth 2140 through the conductive fuel 2020.

Once coupled to cathode 2120, pellet 2130 can be rotated to bring pellet2130 into close proximity or into contact with anode 2110. Once sopositioned, a high intensity current may be applied across electrodes2030, causing the ignition of water in fuel 2020. Expanding gases 2135caused by the ignition process of pellet 2130 may cause the rotation ofelectrodes 2030. Such rotation may be coupled to a shaft (not shown) toprovide rotational power.

One or more gears 2125 can include a set of herringbone gears eachcomprising an integer n teeth wherein fuel 2020 flows into the nthinter-tooth gap or bottom land as the fuel in the n−1th inter-tooth gapis compressed by tooth n−1 of the mating gear. Other geometries of gears2125 or the function of gears 2125 are contemplated by the presentdisclosure, such as, for example, inter-digitated polygonal ortriangular-toothed gears, spiral gears, and augers as known to thoseskilled in the art.

Electrodes 2030 could include conducting and non-conducting regions. Forexample, gear tooth 2140 of cathode 2120 may include conductingmaterials while the gear teeth 2140 of anode 2110 may be non-conducting.Instead, the material between gear teeth 2140 of anode 2110 may beconducting, providing a conduction pathway between anode 2110 andcathode 2120 that passes through pellet 2130. If gears 2125 have aconducting inter-digitation region that contacts fuel 2020 duringmeshing, and are insulating in other regions, current may selectivelyflow through fuel 2020. At least part of gear 2125 may comprise anon-conductive ceramic material, while the inter-digitation region canbe metal coated to be conductive.

In operation, gears 2125 may be energized intermittently such that ahigh current flows through fuel 2020 when gears 2125 are meshed. Theflow of fuel 2020 may be timed to match the delivery of pellet 2130 togears 2125 as they mesh and the current is caused to flow through pellet2130. The consequent high current flow causes fuel 2020 to ignite. Theresulting plasma expands out the sides of gears 2125. The plasmaexpansion flow may be along the axis that is parallel with the shaft ofgear 2125 and transverse to the direction of the flow of the fuel 2020.Moreover, one or more flows of plasma can be directed to an electricconverter, such as, for example, in an MHD converter, as explained inmore detail below. Further directional flow of plasma may be achievedwith confining magnets such as those of Helmholtz coils or a magneticbottle.

Electrodes 2030 may include a regeneration system or process to removematerial deposited on gear teeth 2140 via the ignition process. Aheating or cooling system (not shown) may also be included.

Although every gear tooth 2140 of cathode 2120 may be coupled to pellet2130 in the accompanying figures, in some embodiments, one or more gearteeth 2140 may not couple to pellet 2130. Additionally, anode 2110,cathode 2120, or both electrodes 2030 may include various distributionsof pellets 2130 or other forms of fuel 2020, for example, differentnumbers of pellets 2130 may be located on each on different gear teeth2140.

In operation fuel 2020 may be continuously flowed through gears 2125 (orrollers) that may rotate to propel fuel 2020 through the gap. Fuel 2020may be continuously ignited as it is rotated to fill the space betweenelectrodes 2030 comprising meshing regions of a set of gears 2125. Suchoperation may output a generally constant mechanical or electrical poweroutput.

FIG. 31 depicts electrodes 2030, according to another exemplaryembodiment, where anode 2110 moves (e.g., rotates) while cathode 2120remains stationary. In other embodiments, cathode 2120 may move andanode 2110 may remain stationary.

As shown, fuel delivery device 2050 delivers pellet 2130 between gearteeth 2140. Rotation of anode 2110 can then bring pellet 2130 intocontact with or into close proximity to cathode 2120. Ignition of thewater within pellet 2130 can then cause rotation of anode 2110, in asimilar manner to that described above.

FIG. 32 illustrates another configuration where an electrode 2150, whichcan include anode 2110 or cathode 2120, includes one or more ignitionflow portal 2160 positioned about electrode 2150 to provide rotationalthrust. For example, flow portal 2160 could be angled relative to acircumference of electrode 2150 such that ignition gases exit flowportals 2160 at an angle, as shown in FIG. 32. Such angled thrust canprovide electrode 2150 with rotation. Other objects (not shown), such asbaffles, conduits, or other mechanisms may be used to create rotationalforces on electrode 2150, which could subsequently drive a shaft (notshown) or other component to output rotational power.

FIGS. 33A, 33B illustrate an embodiment of system 2010 whereby anignition process is used to rotate an impeller 2170. Such a radial flowimpeller may be driven by an ignition process using fuel 2020, describedabove. As shown in FIG. 33A, fuel delivery device 2050 may extend towarda central, hollow region 2180 of impeller 2170. Pellet 2130 may begenerally positioned within hollow region 2180, as shown in FIG. 33B.Electrodes (not shown) can also be located within hollow region 2180 andmay be configured to electrically couple to pellet 2130 when pellet 2130is located within hollow region 2180. Once properly positioned, pellet2130 can be ignited, producing radially expanding ignition gases and/orplasma. These gases may be directed by one or more blades 2190 ofimpeller 2170. Blades 2190 may direct the ignition gas flow at an angleto impeller 2170, imparting rotational movement on impeller 2170.

FIG. 34 depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 2010, whereinfuel delivery device 2050 includes a carousel 2200. Carousel 2200 can beconfigured to move fuel 2020 generally between electrodes 2030 viarotational movement. For example, once properly positioned withinignition chamber 2080, a high-intensity electrical pulse can be appliedto pellet 2130. The other components of system 2010 are described above.

Another embodiment of the present disclosure is shown in FIGS. 35A, 35B,wherein fuel delivery device 2050 is moveably coupled to ignitionchamber 2080. In particular, carousel 2200 can be configured to receivepellet 2130 within a receptacle 2210. Once pellet 2130 is coupled toreceptacle 2210, carousel 2200 may rotate to position pellet 2130 aboutan aperture 2220 of ignition chamber 2080. For example, pellet 2130could be positioned within aperture 2220 or in fluid communication withaperture 2220. Once appropriately positioned, a high-intensityelectrical pulse may be applied across electrodes 2030 and may passthrough pellet 2130. The ignition gases may expand and in doing so, mayapply a pressure to piston 2090 to drive piston 2090.

FIG. 36 depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 2010, whereincarousel 2200 cooperates with a chamber array 2230. Chamber array 2230can include a collection of two or more ignition chambers 2080. Inoperation, chamber array 2230 can move relative to carousel 2200 oranother form of fuel delivery device 2050. For example, array 2230 maymove rotationally relative to a stationary fuel delivery device 2050.Alternatively, chamber array 2230 may remain stationary while carousel2200 moves, or both array 2230 and carousel 2200 may move.

Fuel from fuel delivery device 2050 may be loaded sequentially orsimultaneously into one or more ignition chambers 2080 of array 2230.Once loaded, one or more pellets 2130 in one or more chambers 2080 maybe fired to power one or more pistons, turbines, gears, or othermoveable elements (not shown). While system 2010 is shown with a singlecarousel 2200, it is also contemplated that multiple carousels 2200could be used to supply fuel to array 2230. Such a system could includea single carousel 2200 associated with a single ignition chamber 2080,so that four carousels (not shown) would supply fuel to the fourignition chambers 2080 of array 2230. Such an embodiment could allow fora greater firing rate than using a single carousel 2200.

As described above, water-based fuel 2020 may be supplied in one or morevarious forms, including gas, liquid, or solid. Solid pellets 2130 maybe provided in various shapes, and the hockey-puck shown in the abovefigures is exemplary. In other embodiments, pellet 2130 can be cubic,spherical, tablet-shaped, irregular, or any other suitable shape.Moreover, pellet 2130 could be formed into any appropriate size,including mm, micron, and nano-meter sized particles.

The shape and size of pellet 2130 may influence the configuration ofelectrodes 2030. For example, as shown in FIGS. 37A, 37B a puck-typepellet can be received in a suitably shaped receptacle 2240. Part ofreceptacle 2240 may be formed by a wall element 2250, which may bestationary or moveable, which may enclose or partially enclose pellet2130 once received. Part of receptacle 2240 may also be formed by one ormore electrodes 2030. As further shown in FIGS. 37A, 37B, differentconfigurations of electrodes 2030 and/or wall elements 2250 can createdifferent force directions (arrows shown as “F”). Moreover, differentlyshaped electrodes 2030 and/or wall elements 2250 can be configured toform differently shaped receptacles, such as, for example, a sphericalreceptacle 2240, as shown in FIG. 37C.

As explained above, a solid, liquid, or gas form of fuel 2020 may beused. Such fuel may be injected into ignition chamber 2080 using one ormore injection devices 2260, as shown in FIGS. 38A and 38B. A firstinjection device 2260 may be configured to supply water or a water-basedmaterial in a fine stream of particulate matter, in a liquid, slurry,gel, or gas. A second injection device 2260 may be configured to supplya solid fuel or energetic material, as described above (the lattercomprise some H₂O or form H₂O in some embodiments of the presentdisclosure). Streams of one or more materials may be directed intochamber 2080 to provide appropriate mixing and/or positioning ofmaterials relative to electrodes 2030.

In other embodiments, one or more injection devices 2260 can beconfigured to deliver a working fluid to chamber 2080. The working fluidcan include air, inert gas, other gas or gas combinations, or liquid.The working fluid can be injected at pressures below atmospheric, atatmospheric, or above atmospheric.

Although FIG. 38A shows two injection devices 2260 associated with asingle ignition chamber 2080, one or more injection devices may beassociated with one or more chambers 2080. It is also contemplated thatinjection device 2260 may include one or more electrodes 2030. One ormore electrodes may be stationary or moveable relative to ignitionchamber 2080. For example, as shown in FIG. 38B, piston 2090 may includea cathode, and chamber 2080 may include an anode. Relative movementbetween electrodes 2030 and chamber 2080 may permit regeneration of fuel2020, reduce maintenance, or prolong operating life of system 2010.Moreover, one or more injection devices 2260 may be moveable relative toignition chamber 2080, similar to fuel delivery device 2050 describedabove. Moving injection device 2260 relative to ignition chamber 2080prior to ignition of fuel 2020 may reduce the maintenance and prolongthe operating life of injection device 2260.

In other aspects, one or more injection devices 2260 could be used withsystem 2010 described above. For example, fuel 2020 in the form of afine powder may be sprayed onto a region of gear tooth 2140. Fuelconfined between adjacent electrodes 2030 may be ignited, transferringforces to a movable element, to output mechanical power. In anotheraspect, fuel 2020 may be injected into hollow region 2180, as shown inFIGS. 38A and 38B.

FIG. 39 depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 2010, whereinignition chamber 2080 includes at least a partial vacuum. Specifically,a hollow region of chamber 2080 containing piston 2090 may include atleast a partial vacuum. The vacuum may range from about 10−1 Torr toabout 10−10 Torr. In some embodiments, atmospheric pressure may be used.In other embodiments, pressures greater than atmospheric may be used.

In operation, piston 2090 may move left and right as indicated in FIG.39. For example, ignition of fuel 2020 on the left-hand side of chamber2080 may drive piston 2090 right. Then ignition of fuel 2020 on theright-hand side of chamber 2080 may drive piston 2090 left. In betweenignition cycles, fuel delivery devices 2050 may replenish fuel 2020.Piston 2090 may be coupled to a mechanical member (not shown),configured to output mechanical power. Such closed-loop embodimentscould be adapted to operate as a Stirling engine, including alpha-type,beta-type, gamma-type, free-piston, flat, and other types of Stirlingengines.

A closed-loop system could also operate with one or more moveableelements. And in general, one or more components of system 2010 couldform part of a closed-loop system. For example, chamber 2080 could formpart of a closed-loop system configured to recirculate a working fluid.Such a system could operate as a heat exchanger. For example, system2010 could operate a refrigeration cycle whereby a working fluid wouldcirculate between heating and cooling elements. Such a system mayinclude periodic injections of fuel 2020 as required to maintain atleast on of plasma, arc plasma, and thermal power formation.

In some embodiments, system 2010 of FIG. 39 could include one or moremagnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converters comprising at least one pair ofconductive elements 2270 that serve as MHD electrodes or comprisingmagnets 2270 to produce a transverse magnetic field to the axis of flowshown as the longitudinal axis of the combustion chamber 2080 whereinthe pair of electrodes 2270 and magnets 2270 are transverse to eachother and both are transverse to the direction of plasma flow. In otherembodiments, similar devices are configured to generate electricalpower. For example, in a plasmadynamic converter (PDC), one or moremagnetized conductive elements (not shown) placed in chamber 2080 may beused with correspondingly paired unmagnetized conductive elements (notshown) placed in chamber 2080 to generate electrical power. In otherembodiments, an electromagnetic direct converter, a charge driftconverter, or magnetic confinement may also be used to generateelectrical power.

MHD power conversion relies on passing a flow of ions or plasma across amagnetic field. Positive and negative ions may be directed along varioustrajectories, depending on electrode placement, and a voltage may beapplied between the electrodes. The typical MHD method of forming a massflow of ions includes expanding a high-pressure gas seeded with ionsthrough a nozzle. This can create a high-speed flow through the crossedmagnetic field, with a set of electrodes located with respect to thedeflecting field to receive the deflected ions. In system 2010, thepressure of an ignition reaction is typically greater than atmospheric,but not necessarily so. Directional mass flow may be achieved byignition of fuel 2020 to form an ionized expanding plasma.

Such a configuration could allow for the generation of both mechanicaland electrical power from the ignition of water. In addition, at leastsome of the electrical energy produced by the ignition process could beused to power electrodes 2030 or other electrical components of system2010.

FIG. 40 depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 2010, wherein oneor more turbines 2280 are located within a flow chamber 2290. One ormore injection devices 2260 may also be directed into flow chamber 2290.

As described above for chamber 2080, flow chamber 2290 can be configuredto ignite fuel 2020. Flow chamber 2290 can also be configured to receivea working fluid that passes through flow chamber 2290. As shown, turbine2280 upstream of injection devices 2260 may receive a flow of workingfluid and at least partially compress the working fluid. Injectiondevices 2260 may then inject one or more materials, as described above,into the compressed working fluid. Ignition may expand the working fluidthrough a second downstream turbine 2280, creating thrust.Alternatively, mechanical power may be output via a shaft (not shown) orother device mechanical coupled to turbine 2280.

FIG. 41 depicts another exemplary embodiment of system 2010, wherein athruster 2320 is configured to provide thrust as shown by the arrow. Forexample, fuel 2020 may be supplied to a passage 2300. In someembodiments, fuel 2020 and/or a fluid in passage 2300 may be at leastpartially directed towards a nozzle 2330 by an element 2310. Inaddition, passage 2300 can be configured to compress or direct fuel 2020or a fluid in passage 2300. As explained above, the fluid in passage2300 can include a working fluid. One or more electrodes 2030 can beassociated with passage 2300 or element 2310. Such an arrangement can beused to provide thruster 2320.

In operation, fuel 2020 can be ignited as described above. For example,a high-current initiated ignition can create expanding plasma that mayprovide thrust. Thruster 2320 may comprise a closed cell except for anozzle 2330 configured to direct the expanding plasma to provide thrust.In another embodiment, thruster 2320 can comprise a magnetic or otherplasma confinement region. Additional components can direct a magneticfield system to cause the plasma to flow in a directed manner fromelectrodes 2030 following ignition by high-current. In anotherembodiment, the highly ionized plasma may be used in ion motors and ionthrusters known by those skilled in the art to provide thrust.

The systems, engines, and ignition processes described herein may finduse in a wide range of applications requiring mechanical power. Forexample, the present systems, devices, and methods may be used orreadily adapted to operate in land-based, aviation, marine, submarine,or space environments. Mechanical power generation using principlesdescribed herein may find use in transport, mining, farming, orindustrial equipment. For example, a large-output motor may be used inindustrial processing, power generation, HVAC, or manufacturingfacilities. Medium-output applications may include use in a car, truck,train, boat, motorbike, scooter, jet-ski, snow-mobile, outboard marineengine, fork lift, etc. Features described herein may also be used inwhite goods (e.g., refrigerator, washing machine, dish washer, etc.),gardening equipment (e.g., lawn mower, snow blower, brush cutter, etc.),or other applications requiring a small output motor.

For example, embodiments of the present disclosure may be used with amachine configured for land-based transportation. One or more aspects ofsystem 2010 described above may be mechanically coupled to a drive-shaftor other component configured to output mechanical power to atransportation element. The transportation element can include at leastone of a wheel, a track, a gear assembly, a hydraulic member, or otherdevice to provide movement over a land surface. Various machines arecontemplated for land-based transportation, including, an automobile, amotorcycle, a snow-mobile, a truck, or a train. Other types of personal,recreational, and commercial vehicles are also contemplated.

In another embodiment, one or more aspects of system 2010 could be usedwith a machine configured for aviation transport. Such a machine caninclude one or more aviation elements configured to provide propulsion.It is contemplated that the aviation element could include an aviationpropeller, a compressor, or other element configured to producepropulsion in an aviation environment. Such a machine could include aturbojet, a turbofan, a turboprop, a turboshaft, a propfan, a ramjet, ascramjet, or another type of aviation engine.

Aspects of the present disclosure could also be configured to operate ina marine environment. For example, a marine element could providepropulsion in a marine environment, and may include a marine propeller.Other types of marine elements could be contemplated by one of ordinaryskill, and could form part of a pump-jet, a hydro-jet, a water-jet, orother type of water engine.

Yet other aspects of the present disclosure include a work machineprovided with a work element configured to provide mechanical power. Thework element can include a rotating shaft, a reciprocating rod, a cog,an auger, a blade or other component known in the art. The work elementcan form part of a refrigerator, a washing machine, a dish washer, alawn mower, a snow blower, a brush cutter, or other type of workmachine.

XI. Experimental

A. Exemplary SF-CIHT Cell Test Results on Energy and Solid FuelRegeneration

In an experimental test the sample comprised a 1 cm² nickel screenconductor coated with a thin (<1 mm thick) tape cast coating of NiOOH,11 wt % carbon, and 27 wt % Ni powder. The material was confined betweenthe two copper electrodes of a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spotwelder and subjected to a short burst of low-voltage, high-currentelectrical energy. The applied 60 Hz voltage was about 8 V peak, and thepeak current was about 20,000 A. After about 0.14 ms with an energyinput of about 46 J, the material vaporized in about 1 ms. Severalgauges of wire were tested to determine if 8 V was sufficient to causean exploding wire phenomenon observed with high-energy,multi-kilovolt-charged , high-capacitance capacitors that are shortcircuited. Only known resistive heating to glowing red and heating tomelting in the case of an 0.25 mm diameter Au wire were observed.

The thermodynamically calculated energy to vaporize just the 350 mg ofNiOOH and 50 mg of Ni metal was 3.22 kJ or 9.20 kJ/g NiOOH. Since theNiOOH decomposition energy is essentially zero, this experimentdemonstrated a large energy release. The blast initiated after anegligible total energy of 40 J was applied. The blast caused 3.22 kJ ofthermal energy to be released in 3 ms corresponding to 1,100,000 W (1.1MW) thermal power. Given the sample dimensions of 1 cm² area and <1 mmthickness, the volumetric power density was in excess of 11×10⁹ W/lthermal. From the fit of the visible spectrum recorded with an OceanOptics visible spectrometer to the blackbody radiation curve, the gastemperature was 25,000K.

Consider that the calculated thermal energy to achieve the observedvaporization of just the 350 mg of NiOOH and 50 mg of Ni mesh componentsof the reaction mixture is 3.22 kJ. The moles of H₂ in 350 mg of NiOOHsolid fuel is 2 mmoles. Based on the calculated enthalpy of 50 MJ/moleH₂(1/4) for the hydrino reaction of H₂ to H₂(1/4) with a stoichiometryof ⅔ of the H goes to HOH catalyst and ⅓ to hydrino H₂(1/4), thecorresponding maximum theoretical energy from forming H₂(1/4) is 33 kJ;so, about 10% of the available hydrogen was converted to H₂(1/4). Thecorresponding hydrino reaction yield is 64.4 umoles H₂(1/4).

Another embodiment of the solid fuel comprised 100 mg of Co powder and20 mg of MgCl₂ that was hydrated. The reactants were compressed into apellet and ignited with the Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welderby subjecting the pellet to a short burst of low-voltage, high-currentelectrical energy. The applied 60 Hz voltage was about 8 V peak, and thepeak current was about 20,000 A. The blast occurred in an argon filledglove bag and released an estimated 3 kJ of plasma energy. The particlesof the plasma condensed as a nanopowder. The product was hydrated with10 mg H₂O, and the ignition was repeated. The repeat blast of theregenerated solid fuel was more powerful than the first, releasing about5 kJ of energy.

B. Calorimetry of Solid Fuel of the SF-CIHT Cell

Calorimetry was performed using a Parr 1341 plain-jacketed calorimeterwith a Parr 6774 calorimeter thermometer option on a solid fuel pellet.A Parr 1108 oxygen combustion chamber of the calorimeter was modified topermit initiation of the chemical reaction with high current. Copper rodignition electrodes that comprised ½″ outer diameter (OD) by 12″ lengthcopper cylinders were fed through the sealed chamber containing agraphite pellet (˜1000 mg, L×W×H=0.18″×0.6″×0.3″) as a control resistiveload for calibration of the heat capacity of the calorimeter or a solidfuel pellet wherein the ends had a copper clamp that tightly confinedeach sample. The calorimeter water bath was loaded with 2,000 g DI water(as per Parr manual). The power source for calibration and ignition ofthe solid fuel pellet was a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welderthat supplied a short burst of electrical energy in the form of a 60 Hzlow-voltage of about 8 V RMS and high-current of about 15,000 to 20,000A. The input energy of the calibration and ignition of the solid fuelwas given as the product of the voltage and current integrated over thetime of the input. The voltage was measured by a data acquisition system(DAS) comprising a PC with a National Instruments USB-6210 dataacquisition module and Labview VI. The current was also measured by thesame DAS using a Rogowski coil (Model CWT600LF with a 700 mm cable) thatwas accurate to 0.3% as the signal source. V and I input data wasobtained at 10 KS/s and a voltage attenuator was used to bring analoginput voltage to within the +/−10V range of the USB-6210.

The calibrated heat capacity of the calorimeter and electrode apparatuswas determined to be 12,000 J/° C. using the graphite pellet with anenergy input of 995 J by the spot welder. The sample of solid fuelcomprising Cu (45 mg)+CuO (15 mg)+H₂O (15 mg) that was sealed in analuminum DSC pan (70 mg) (Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7×3 (Setaram,S08/HBB37408) and Aluminum cover D: 6,7, stamped, tight (Setaram,S08/HBB37409)) was ignited with an applied peak 60 Hz voltage of 3 V anda peak current of about 11,220 A. The input energy measured from thevoltage and current over time was 46 J to ignite the sample as indicatedby a disruption spike in the waveforms with a total of 899 J input bythe power pulse of the spot welder, and the total output energycalculated for the calorimetry thermal response to the energy releasedfrom the ignited solid fuel using the calibrated heat capacity was3,035.7 J. By subtracting the input energy, the net energy was 2,136.7 Jfor the 0.075 g sample. In control experiments with H₂O, the alumina pandid not undergo a reaction other than become vaporized in the blast. XRDalso showed no aluminum oxide formation. Thus, the theoretical chemicalreaction energy was zero, and the solid fuel produced 28,500 J/g ofexcess energy in the formation of hydrinos.

C. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) of Solid Fuels

Solid fuels were tested for excess energy over the maximum theoreticalusing a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter usingAu-coated crucibles with representative results shown in TABLE 8.

TABLE 8 Exemplary DSC Test Results. Theo Mass Temp Heating Cooling Exp.Total Energy Date Reactants (mg) (° C.) (J/g) (J/g) (J/g) (J/g) Sep. 30,2013 4.6 mg Cu(OH)2 + 15.6 280 −195.51 −19.822 −215.33 −62.97 11.0 mgFeBr2 Oct. 10, 2013 5.7 mg FeOOH 5.7 450 −116.661 6.189 −110.472 −51.69Oct. 28, 2013 14.3 mg CuBr2 + 15.5 340 −78.7 −30.4 −109.1 +885.4 1.2 mgH2O

D. Spectroscopic Identification of Molecular Hydrino

0.05 ml (50 mg) of H₂O was added to 20 mg or either Co₃O₄ or CuO thatwas sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7×3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and Aluminum cover D: 6,7, stamped, non-tight(Setaram, S08/HBB37409)) and ignited with a current of between 15,000 to25,000 A at about 8 V RMS using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spotwelder. A large power burst was observed that vaporized the samples,each as an energetic, highly-ionized, expanding plasma. A MoCu foilwitness plate (50-50 at %, AMETEK, 0.020″ thickness) was placed 3.5inches from the center of the ignited sample such that the expandingplasma was incident on the surface to embed H₂(1/4) molecules into thesurface.

Using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman with a 780 nm diode laser inthe macro mode, a 40 cm⁻¹ broad absorption peak was observed on the MoCufoil following exposure to the H₂(1/4) containing plasma. The peak wasnot observed in the virgin alloy, and the peak intensity increased withincreasing plasma intensity and laser intensity. Since no other elementor compound is known that can absorb a single 40 cm⁻¹ (0.005 eV) nearinfrared line at 1.33 eV (the energy of the 780 nm laser minus 1950cm⁻¹) H₂(1/4) was considered. The absorption peak starting at 1950cm^(−I) matched the free space rotational energy of H₂(1/4) (0.2414 eV)to four significant figures, and the width of 40 cm⁻¹ matches theorbital-nuclear coupling energy splitting [Mills GUTCP].

The absorption peak matching the H₂(1/4) rotational energy is a realpeak and cannot be explained by any known species. The excitation of thehydrino rotation may cause the absorption peak by an inverse Ramaneffect (IRE). Here, the continuum caused by the laser is absorbed andshifted to the laser frequency wherein the continuum is strong enough tomaintain the rotational excited state population to permit theantiStokes energy contribution. Typically, the laser power is very highfor an IRE, but the MoCu surface was found to cause surface enhancedRaman scattering (SERS). The absorption was assigned to an inverse Ramaneffect (IRE) for the H₂(1/4) rotational energy for the J′=1 to J″=0transition. This result shows that H₂(1/4) is a free rotor which is thecase with H₂ in silicon matrix. The results on the plasma-exposed MoCufoils match those observed previously on CIHT cell as reported in Millsprior publication: R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J.Trevey, High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT)Electrochemical Cell, (2014) that is herein incorporated by reference inits entirety.

MAS ¹H NMR, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Ramanspectroscopy, and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy were performedon samples of reaction products comprising CIHT electrolyte, CIHTelectrodes, and inorganic compound getter KCl—KOH mixture placed in thesealed container of closed CIHT cells.

MAS NMR of molecular hydrino trapped in a protic matrix represents ameans to exploit the unique characteristics of molecular hydrino for itsidentification via its interaction with the matrix. A uniqueconsideration regarding the NMR spectrum is the possible molecularhydrino quantum states. Similar to H₂ exited states, molecular hydrinosH₂ (1/p) have states with

=0,1,2, . . . , p−1. Even the

=0 quantum state has a relatively large quadrupole moment, andadditionally, the corresponding orbital angular momentum of

≠0 states gives rise to a magnetic moment [Mills GUT] that could causean upfield matrix shift. This effect is especially favored when thematrix comprises an exchangeable H such as a matrix having waters ofhydration or an alkaline hydroxide solid matrix wherein a localinteraction with H₂(1/p) influences a larger population due to rapidexchange. CIHT cell getter KOH—KCl showed a shift of the MAS NMR activecomponent of the matrix (KOH) from +4.4 ppm to about −4 to −5 ppm afterexposure to the atmosphere inside of the sealed CIHT cell. For example,the MAS NMR spectrum of the initial KOH—KCl (1:1) getter, the sameKOH—KCl (1:1) getter from CIHT cells comprising [MoNi/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] and[CoCu (H perm)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] that output 2.5 Wh, 80 mA, at 125% gain,and 6.49 Wh, 150 mA, at 186% gain, respectively, showed that the knowndownfield peak of OH matrix shifted from about +4 ppm to the upfieldregion of about −4 ppm. Molecular hydrino produced by the CIHT cellshifted the matrix from positive to significantly upfield. The different

quantum numbers possible for the p=4 state can give rise to differentupfield matrix shifts consistent with observations of multiple suchpeaks in the region of −4 ppm. The MAS NMR peak of the KOH matrixupfield shifted by forming a complex with molecular hydrino that can besharp when the upfield shifted hydroxide ion (OH⁻) acts as a free rotor,consistent with prior observations. The MAS-NMR results are consistentwith prior positive ion ToF-SIMS spectra that showed multimer clustersof matrix compounds with di-hydrogen as part of the structure, M:H₂(M=KOH or K₂CO₃). Specifically, the positive ion spectra of prior CIHTcell getters comprising KOH and K₂CO₃ such as of K₂CO₃—KCl (30:70 wt %)showed K⁺(H₂:KOH)_(n) K⁺(H₂:K₂CO₃)_(n) consistent with H₂(1/p) as acomplex in the structure [R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J.Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemicalcell,” (2014), International Journal of Energy Research].

The direct identification of molecular hydrino by its characteristicextraordinarily high ro-vibrational energies was sought using Ramanspectroscopy. Another distinguishing characteristic is that theselection rules for molecular hydrino are different from those ofordinary molecular hydrogen. Similarly to H2 excited states, molecularhydrinos have states with

=0,1,2, . . . , p−1 wherein the prolate spheroidal photon fields ofH₂(1/p); p=1, 2, 3, . . . , 137 have spherical harmonic angularcomponents of quantum number

relative to the semimajor axis [Mills GUT]. Transitions between theseprolate spheroidal harmonic states are permissive of rotationaltransitions of ΔJ=0, ±1 during a pure vibrational transition without anelectronic transition as observed for H₂ excited states. The lifetimesof the angular states are sufficiently long such that H₂(1/p) mayuniquely undergo a pure ro-vibrational transition having the selectionrule ΔJ=0, ±1.

The emitting ro-vibrational molecular hydrino state may be excited by ahigh-energy electron collision or the by a laser wherein due to therotational energy of p²(J+1)0.01509 eV [Mills GUT] excited rotationalstates cannot be populated as a statistical thermodynamic population atambient temperatures since the corresponding thermal energy is less than0.02 eV. Thus, the ro-vibrational state population distribution reflectsthe excitation probability of the external source. Moreover, due to thethirty-five times higher vibrational energy of p² 0.515 eV over therotational energy, only the first level, υ=1, is expected to be excitedby the external source. Molecular hydrino states can undergo

quantum number changes at ambient temperature, and the J quantum statemay changed during e-beam or laser irradiation as the power isthermalized. Thus, the initial state may be any one of

=0,1,2,3 independently of the J quantum number. Thus, rotational andro-vibrational transitions are Raman and IR active with the R, Q, Pbranches being allowed wherein the angular momentum is conserved betweenthe rotational and electronic state changes. Permitted by the change in

quantum number, the de-excitation vibrational transition υ=1→υ=0 with arotational energy up conversion (J′−J″=−1), a down conversion(J′−J″=+1), and no change (J′−J″=0) gives rise to the P, R, and Qbranches, respectively. The Q-branch peak corresponding to the purevibrational transition υ=1→υ=0; ΔJ=0 is predicted to be the most intensewith a rapid decrease in intensity for the P and R series of transitionpeaks of higher order wherein due to the available energy of internalconversion, more peaks of higher intensity are expected for the P branchrelative to the R branch. An influence of the matrix is expected tocause a vibrational energy shift from that of a free vibrator, and amatrix rotational energy barrier is anticipated to give rise to aboutthe same energy shift to each of the P and R branch peaks manifest as anonzero intercept of the linear energy separation of the series ofrotational peaks.

It was reported previously [R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J.Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemicalcell,” (2014), International Journal or Energy Research] thatro-vibrational emission of H₂(1/4) trapped in the crystalline lattice ofgetters of CIHT cell gas was excited by an incident 6 KeV electron gunwith a beam current of 8 μA in the pressure range of 5×10⁻⁶ Torr, andrecorded by windowless UV spectroscopy. By the same method H₂(1/4)trapped in the metal crystalline lattice of MoCu was observed byelectron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy. An example of theresolved ro-vibrational spectrum of H₂(1/4) (so called 260 nm band)recorded from the MoCu anode of the CIHT cell [MoCu(50/50) (Hpermeation)/LiOH+LiBr/NiO] that output 5.97 Wh, 80 mA, at 190% gainshowed the peak maximum at 258 nm with representative positions of thepeaks at 227, 238, 250, 263, 277, and 293 nm, having an equal spacing of0.2491 eV. The results are in very good agreement with the predictedvalues for H₂(1/4) for the transitions of the matrix-shifted vibrationaland free rotor rotational transitions of υ=1→υ=0 and Q(0), R(0), R(1),P(1), P(2), and P(3), respectively, wherein Q(0) is identifiable as themost intense peak of the series. The peak width (FWHM) was 4 nm.Broadening of ro-vibrational transitions of H₂(1/4) relative to ordinaryH₂ in a crystalline lattice is expected since the energies involved areextraordinary, being sixteen times higher, and significantly couple tophonon bands of the lattice resulting in resonance broadening. The 260nm band was not observed on the MoCu starting material. The 260 nm bandwas observed as a second order Raman fluorescence spectrum from KOH—KClcrystals that served as a getter of H₂(1/4) gas when sealed in CIHTcells as described previously [R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J.Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemicalcell,” (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. The 260 nmband was also observed on the CoCu anode.

H₂(1/4) was further confirmed using Raman spectroscopy wherein due tothe large energy difference between ortho and para, the latter wasexpected to dominate the population. Given that para is even, thetypical selection rule for pure rotational transitions is ΔJ=±2 for evenintegers. However, orbital-rotational angular momentum coupling givesrise to a change in the e quantum number with the conservation of theangular momentum of the photon that excites the rotational level whereinthe resonant photon energy is shifted in frequency by theorbital-nuclear hyperfine energy relative to the transition in theabsence of the

quantum number change. Moreover, for

≠0, the nuclei are aligned along the internuclear axis as given in Chp12 of Ref. [Mills GUT]. The rotational selection rule for Stokes spectradefined as initial state minus final state is ΔJ=J′−J″=−1, the orbitalangular momentum selection rule is Δ

=±1, and the transition becomes allowed by the conservation of angularmomentum during the coupling of the rotational and the orbital angularmomentum excitations [Mills GUT]. And, no intensity dependency onnuclear spin is expected.

Using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman with a 780 nm diode laser inthe macro mode, a 40 cm⁻¹ broad absorption peak was observed on MoCuhydrogen permeation anodes after the production of excess electricity.The peak was not observed in the virgin alloy, and the peak intensityincreased with increasing excess energy and laser intensity. Moreover itwas present pre and post sonication indicating that the only possibleelements to consider as the source were Mo, Cu, H, and O as confirmed bySEM-EDX. Permutations of control compounds did not reproduce the peak.The peak was also observed on cells having Mo, CoCu, and MoNiAl anodessuch as the cell [CoCu (H permeation)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] that output 6.49Wh, 150 mA, at 186% gain and the cell [MoNiAl (45.5/45.5/9 wt%)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] that output 2.40 Wh, 80 mA, at 176% gain. In separateexperiments, KOH—KCl gettered gas from these cells gave a very intensefluorescence or photoluminescence series of peaks that were assigned toH₂(1/4) ro-vibration. Since no other element or compound is known thatcan absorb a single 40 cm⁻¹ (0.005 eV) near infrared line at 1.33 eV(the energy of the 780 nm laser minus 2000 cm⁻¹) H₂(1/4) was considered.The absorption peak starting at 1950 cm⁻¹ matched the free spacerotational energy of H₂(1/4) (0.2414 eV) to four significant figures,and the width of 40 cm⁻¹ matches the orbital-nuclear coupling energysplitting [Mills GUT].

The absorption peak matching the H₂(1/4) rotational energy is a realpeak and cannot be explained by any known species. The excitation of thehydrino rotation may cause the absorption peak by two mechanisms. In thefirst, the Stokes light is absorbed by the lattice due to a stronginteraction of the rotating hydrino as a lattice inclusion. This is akinto resonance broadening observed with the 260 nm e-beam band. The secondcomprises a known inverse Raman effect. Here, the continuum caused bythe laser is absorbed and shifted to the laser frequency wherein thecontinuum is strong enough to maintain the rotational excited statepopulation to permit the antiStokes energy contribution. Typically, thelaser power is very high for an IRE, but molecular hydrino may be aspecial case due to its non-zero

quantum number and corresponding selections rules. Moreover, MoCu isanticipated to cause a Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) due tothe small dimensions of the Mo and Cu grain boundaries of the mixture ofmetals. So, the results are discussed from the context of the lattermechanism.

The absorption was assigned to an inverse Raman effect (IRE) for theH₂(1/4) rotational energy for the J′=1 to J″=0 transition [Mills GUT].This result showed that H₂(1/4) is a free rotor which is the case withH₂ in silicon matrix. Moreover, since H₂(1/4) may form complexes withhydroxide as shown by MAS NMR and ToF-SIMs, and a matrix shift isobserved with the electron-bean excitation emission spectrum and thephotoluminescence spectrum due to the influence of the local environmentat the H₂(1/4) site in the lattice, the IRE is anticipated to shift aswell in different matrices and also with pressure [R. Mills, X Yu, Y.Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrino transition(CIHT) electrochemical cell,” (2014), International Journal or EnergyResearch]. Likewise, the Raman peaks of H₂ as a matrix inclusion shiftwith pressure. Several instances were observed by Raman spectralscreening of metals and inorganic compounds. Ti and Nb showed a smallabsorption peak of about 20 counts starting at 1950 cm⁻¹. Al showed amuch larger peak. Instances of inorganic compounds included LiOH andLiOH—LiBr that showed the peak at 2308 cm⁻¹ and 2608 cm⁻¹, respectively.Ball milling LiOH—LiBr caused a reaction to greatly intensify the IREpeak and shift it to be centered at 2308 cm⁻¹ like LiOH as well as forma peak centered at 1990 cm⁻¹. An especially strong absorption peak wasobserved at 2447 cm^(−I) from Ca(OH)₂ that forms H₂O. The latter mayserve as a catalyst to form H₂(1/4) upon dehydration of Ca(OH)₂ at 512°C. or by reaction with CO₂. These are solid fuel type reactions to formhydrinos as reported previously [R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J.Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemicalcell,” (2014), International Journal or Energy Research]. LiOH andCa(OH)₂ both showed a H₂(1/4) IRE peak, and the LiOH is commerciallyformed from Ca(OH)₂ by reaction with Li₂CO₃. Thus, Ca(OH)₂+Li₂CO₃mixture was caused to react by ball milling, and a very intense H₂(1/4)IRE peak was observed centered at 1997 cm⁻¹.

H₂(1/4) as the product of solid fuel reactions was reported previously[R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst inducedhydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemical cell,” (2014), InternationalJournal of Energy Research; R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, “SolidFuels that Form HOH Catalyst,” (2014)]. The energy released by forminghydrinos according to Eqs. (6-9) was shown to give rise to high kineticenergy H⁻. Using solid fuel Li+LiNH₂+dissociator Ru—Al₂O₃ that can formH and HOH catalyst by decomposition of Al(OH)₃ and reaction of Li withH₂O and LiNH₂, ions arriving before m/e=1 were observed by ToF-SIMS thatconfirmed the energy release of Eq. (9) is manifest as high kineticenergy H⁻. Other ions such as oxygen (m/e=16) showed no early peak. Therelation between time of flight T, mass m, and acceleration voltage V is

$\begin{matrix}{T = {A\sqrt{\frac{m}{V}}}} & (197)\end{matrix}$

where A is a constant that depends on ion flight distance. From theobserved early peak at m/e=0.968 with an acceleration voltage of 3 kV,the kinetic energy imparted to the H species from the hydrino reactionis about 204 eV that is a match to the HOH catalyst reaction given byEqs. (6-9). The same early spectrum was observed in the positive modecorresponding to H⁺, but the intensity was lower.

XPS was performed on the solid fuel. The XPS of LiHBr formed by thereaction of Li, LiBr, LiNH₂, dissociator R—Ni (comprising about 2 wt %Al(OH)₃), and 1 atm H₂, showed a peak at 494.5 eV and 495.6 eV for XPSspectra on reaction products of two different runs that could not beassigned to any known elements. Na, Sn, and Zn being the onlypossibilities were easy to eliminate based on the absence of any othercorresponding peaks of these elements since only Li, Br, C, and O peakswere observed. The peak matched the energy of the theoretically alloweddouble ionization [R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski,“Catalyst induced hydrino transition (CIHT) electrochemical cell,”(2014), International Journal or Energy Research] of molecular hydrinoH₂(1/4). Molecular hydrino was further confirmed as a product by Ramanand FTIR spectroscopy. The Raman spectrum of solid fuel product LiHBrshowed a H₂(1/4) inverse Raman effect absorption peak centered at 1994cm⁻¹. The FTIR spectrum of solid fuel product LiHBr showed a new sharppeak at 1988 cm⁻¹ that is a close match to the free rotor energy ofH₂(1/4). Furthermore, the MAS NMR showed a strong up-field shift peakconsistent with that shown for other CIHT cell KOH—KCl (1:1) gettersamples such as one from a CIHT cell comprising [Mo/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] thatoutput 2.5 Wh, 80 mA, at 125% gain that showed upfield shifted matrixpeaks at −4.04 and −4.38 ppm and one from a CIHT cell comprising [CoCu(H permeation)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] that output 6.49 Wh, 150 mA, at 186% gainthat showed upfield shifted matrix peaks at −4.09 and −4.34 ppm.

XPS was also performed on the anodes of CIHT cells such as [MoCu (Hpermeation)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] (1.56 Wh, 50 mA, at 189% gain), and [MoNi (Hpermeation)/LiOH—LiBrNiO] (1.53 Wh, 50 mA, at 190%). The 496 eV peak wasobserved as well. The peak was assigned to H₂(1/4) since the otherpossibilities were eliminated. Specifically, in each case, the 496 eVpeak could not be associated with Mo 1s, as its intensity would muchsmaller than Mo 3p peaks and the energy would be higher that thatobserved, and it could not assigned to Na KLL, since there is no Na 1sin the spectrum.

Another successful cross-confirmatory technique in the search forhydrino spectra involved the use of the Raman spectrometer wherein thero-vibration of H₂(1/4) matching the 260 nm e-beam band was observed assecond order fluorescence. The gas from the cells [Mo, 10 bipolarplates/LiOH—LiBr—MgO/NiO] (2550.5 Wh, 1.7 A, 9.5V, at 234% gain),[MoCu/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] (3.5 Wh, 80 mA, at 120% gain), [MoNi/LiOH—LiBr/NiO](1.8 Wh, 80 mA, at 140%) was gettered with KOH—KCl (50-50 at %), and[CoCu (H permeation)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] (6.49 Wh, 150 mA, at 186% gain), andthe Raman spectra were recorded on the getters using the Horiba JobinYvon LabRAM Aramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325 nm laser inmicroscope mode with a magnification of 40×. In each case, an intenseseries of 1000 cm⁻¹ (0.1234 eV) equal-energy spaced Raman peaks wereobserved in the 8000 cm⁻¹ to 18,000 cm⁻ region. The conversion of theRaman spectrum into the fluorescence or photoluminescence spectrumrevealed a match as the second order ro-vibrational spectrum of H₂(1/4)corresponding to the 260 nm band first observed by e-beam excitation [R.Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst induced hydrinotransition (CIHT) electrochemical cell,” (2014), International Journalor Energy Research]. The peak assignments to the Q, R, and P branchesfor the spectra are Q(0), R(0), R(1), R(2), R(3), R(4), P(1), P(2),P(3), P(4), P(5), and P(6) observed at 12,199, 11,207, 10,191, 9141,8100, 13,183, 14,168, 15,121, 16,064, 16,993, and 17,892 cm⁻¹,respectively. The excitation was deemed to be by the high-energy UV andEUV He and Cd emission of the laser wherein the laser optics aretransparent to at least 170 nm and the grating (Labram Aramis 2400 g/mm460 mm focal length system with 1024×26 μm² pixels CCD) is dispersiveand has its maximum efficiency at the shorter wavelength side of thespectral range, the same range as the 260 nm band. For example, cadmiumhas a very intense line at 214.4 nm (5.8 eV) that matches thero-vibrational excitation energy of H₂(1/4) in KCl matrix based on thee-beam excitation data. The CCD is also most responsive at 500 nm, theregion of the second order of the 260 nm band centered at 520 nm.

The photoluminescence bands were also correlated with the upfieldshifted NMR peaks. For example, the KOH—KCl (1:1) getter from MoNi anodeCIHT cells comprising [MoNi/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] having upfield shifted matrixpeaks at −4.04 and −4.38 ppm and the KOH—KCl (1:1) getter from CoCu Hpermeation anode CIHT cells comprising [CoCu (Hpermeation)/LiOH—LiBr/NiO] having upfield shifted matrix peaks at −4.09and −4.34 ppm showed the series of photoluminescence peaks correspondingto the 260 nm e-beam.

Overall, the Raman results such as the observation of the 0.241 eV (1940cm⁻¹) Raman inverse Raman effect peak and the 0.2414 eV-spaced Ramanphotoluminescence band that matched the 260 nm e-beam spectrum is strongconfirmation of molecular hydrino having an internuclear distance thatis ¼ that of H₂. The evidence in the latter case is furthersubstantiated by being in a region having no known first order peaks orpossible assignment of matrix peaks at four significant figure agreementwith theoretical predictions.

A Raman spectrum was performed on a 1 g KOH—KCl (1:1) getter sample thatwas held 2″ away from the center of 15 consecutive initiations of 15separate solid fuel pellets each comprising CuO (30 mg)+Cu (10 mg)+H₂O(14.5 mg) that was sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (Aluminum crucible 30μl, D:6.7×3 (Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and Aluminum cover D: 6,7, stamped,tight (Setaram, S08/HBB37409)). Each sample of solid fuel was ignitedwith a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spot welder that supplied a shortburst of low-voltage, high-current electrical energy. The applied 60 Hzvoltage was about 8 V peak, and the peak current was about 20,000 A. Thegetter sample was contained in an alumina crucible that was covered witha polymer mesh wire tied around the crucible. The mesh prevented anysolid reaction products from entering the sample while allowing gas topass through. The fifteen separate solid fuel samples were rapidlysuccessively ignited, and the getter sample that accumulated the 15exposures was transferred to Ar glove box where it was homogenouslymixed using a mortar and pestle. Using the Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRAMAramis Raman spectrometer with a HeCd 325 nm laser in microscope modewith a magnification of 40×, the series of 1000 cm⁻¹ equal-energy spacedRaman peaks that matched the second order rotational emission of H₂(1/4)within the υ=1→υ=0 transition was observed. Specifically, the Q, R, andP branch peaks Q(0), R(0), R(1), R(2), P(1), P(2), P(3), P(4), and P(5),were observed at 12,194, 11,239, 10,147, 13,268, 14,189, 15,127, 16,065,17,020, and 17,907 cm⁻¹, respectively, that confirmed molecular hydrinoH₂(1/4) as the source of the energetic blast of the ignited solid fuel.

EUV spectroscopy was performed on a solid fuel sample comprising a 0.08cm² nickel screen conductor coated with a thin (<1 mm thick) tape castcoating of NiOOH, 11 wt % carbon, and 27 wt % Ni powder contained in avacuum chamber evacuated to 5×10⁻⁴ Torr. The material was confinedbetween the two copper electrodes of an Acme Electric Welder Companymodel 3-42-75, 75 KVA spot welder such that the horizontal plane of thesample was aligned with the optics of a EUV spectrometer as confirmed byan alignment laser. The sample was subjected to a short burst oflow-voltage, high-current electrical energy. The applied 60 Hz voltagewas about 8 V peak, and the peak current was about 20,000 A. The EUVspectrum was recorded using a McPherson grazing incidence EUVspectrometer (Model 248/31OG) equipped with a platinum-coated 600 g/mmgrating and an Aluminum (Al) (800 nm thickness, Luxel Corporation)filter to block visible light. The angle of incidence was 87°. Thewavelength resolution with an entrance slit width of 100 μm was about0.15 nm at the CCD center and 0.5 nm at the limits of the CCD wavelengthrange window of 50 nm. The distance from the plasma source being theignited solid fuel to the spectrometer entrance was 70 cm. The EUV lightwas detected by a CCD detector (Andor iDus) cooled to −60° C. The CCDdetector was centered at 35 nm. Continuum radiation in the region of 10to 40 nm was observed. The Al window was confirmed to be intactfollowing the recording of the blast spectrum. A blast outside of aquartz window that cuts any EUV light by passes visible light showed aflat spectrum confirming that the short wavelength continuum spectrumwas not due to scattered visible light that passed the Al filter. A highvoltage helium pinch discharge spectrum showed only He atomic and ionlines which were used to wavelength calibrate the spectrum. Thus, thehigh-energy light was confirmed to be a real signal. The radiation ofenergy of about 125 eV is not possible due to field acceleration sincethe maximum applied voltage was less than 8 V; moreover, no knowchemical reaction can release more than a few eV's. The nascent H2Omolecule may serve as a catalyst by accepting 81.6 eV (m=3) to form anintermediate that decays with the emission of a continuum band having anenergy cutoff of 9²·13.6 eV=122.4 eV and a short wavelength cutoff of

$\begin{matrix}{\lambda_{({H\rightarrow{H{\lbrack\frac{a_{H}}{p = {m + 1}}\rbrack}}})} = {{\frac{91.2}{3^{2}}\mspace{14mu}{nm}} = {10.1\mspace{14mu}{nm}}}} & \left( {{Eqs}.\mspace{14mu}\left( {32\text{-}33} \right)} \right)\end{matrix}$

The continuum radiation band in the 10 nm region and going to longerwavelengths matched the theoretically predicted transition of H to thehydrino state H(1/4) according to Eqs. (43-47).

E. Plasmadynamic Power Conversion

0.05 ml (50 mg) of H₂O was added to 20 mg or either Co₃O₄ or CuO thatwas sealed in an aluminum DSC pan (Aluminum crucible 30 μl, D:6.7×3(Setaram, S08/HBB37408) and Aluminum cover D: 6,7, stamped, tight(Setaram, S08/HBB37409)). Using a Taylor-Winfield model ND-24-75 spotwelder, each sample was ignited with a current of between 15,000 to25,000 A at about 8 V RMS applied to the ignition electrodes thatcomprised ⅝″ outer diameter (OD) by 3″ length copper cylinders whereinthe flat ends confined the sample. A large power burst was observed thatvaporized each sample as an energetic, highly-ionized, expanding plasma.PDC electrodes comprised two 1/16″ OD copper wires. The magnetized PDCelectrode was shaped as an open loop with a diameter of 1″ that wasplaced circumferentially around the ignition electrodes, in the plane ofthe fuel sample. Since the current was axial, the magnetic field fromthe high current was radial, parallel to the contour of the loop PDCelectrode. The counter unmagnetized PDC electrode was parallel to theignition electrodes and the direction of the high current; thus, theradial magnetic field lines were perpendicular to this PDC electrode.The counter PDC electrode extended 2.5″ above and below the plane of thesample. The PDC voltage was measured across a standard 0.1 ohm resistor.A power of 6250 W was recorded on one set of PDC electrodes followingignition corresponding to a voltage of 25 V and a current of 250 A. ThePDC power scaled linearly with the number of PDC electrode pairs.

F. H₂O Arc Plasma Cell

The high power from the formation of hydrinos by causing an arc plasmain a standing H₂O column was experimentally tested. A schematic drawingof an experimental H₂O arc plasma cell power generator 800 is shown inFIG. 11. The H₂O arc plasma system comprised an energy storage capacitor806 connected between a copper baseplate-and-rod electrode 803 and 802and a concentric outer copper cylindrical electrode 801 that containedwater 805 wherein the rod 802 of the baseplate-and-rod electrode 803 and802 was below the water column. The rod 802 was embedded in a Nyloninsulator sleeve 804 in the cylindrical electrode section and a Nylonblock 804 between the baseplate 803 and the cylinder 801. A column oftap water or tap water added to deionized water 805 stood between thecenter rod electrode 802 and the outer cylindrical and circumferentialelectrode 801. No discharge was achieved at the voltages applied withdeionized water. A capacitor bank 806 comprising four capacitors(Sprague, 16 uF 4500V DC, model A-109440, 30P12) connected in parallelwith terminal bolts to two, 1 inch wide by ⅛ inch thick, copper bars wasconnected across the electrodes with one lead connected to ground 410 bya 0.6 Mohm resistor 808. The capacitor bank was charged by a highvoltage power supply 809 (Universal Voltronics, 20 kV DC, Model 1650R2)through a connection having a 1 Mohm resistor 807 and discharged by aatmospheric-air spark gap switch 411 that comprised stainless steelelectrodes. The high voltage was the in range of about 3 to 4.5 kV. Nodischarge was achieved below 3 kV. The discharge current was in therange of 10 to 13 kA (measured by a Rogowski coil, Model CWT600LF with700 mm cable). Exemplary parameters for 4 ml of H₂O in the open cellthat was tested were a capacitance of about 64 μF, an intrinsicinductance of about 6 μH, an intrinsic resistance of about 0.312, acylindrical electrode 801 inner diameter (ID) and depth of ½ inches and2.5 inches, respectively, a rod 802 outer diameter (OD) of ¼ inches, adistance between cylindrical electrode 801 and center rod 802 of ⅛″, acharging voltage of about 4.5 kV, and the circuit time constant of about20 μs. H₂O ignition to form hydrinos at a high rate was achieved by thetriggered water arc discharge wherein the arc caused the formation ofatomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst that reacted to form hydrinos with theliberation of high power. The high power was evident by the productionof a supersonic ejection of the entire H₂O content 10 feet high into thelaboratory wherein the ejected plume impacted the ceiling.

calorimetry was performed using a Parr 1341 plain-jacketed calorimeterwith a Parr 6774 calorimeter thermometer option. The calorimeter waterbath was loaded with 2,000 g DI water (as per Parr manual), and the H₂Oarc plasma cell power generator was placed inside submerged under thewater. The only modification to the arc plasma cell was that a cap withpressure relief channels was secured to the top of the cylindricalelectrode. The power source for calibration and ignition of was the bankof capacitors having a total capacitance C of 64 μF. The positiveconnection of the capacitor bank was connected to the cell with 8 AWG 40kVDC wire and the negative lead was connected with 10 AWG Type 90 wire.The input energy E_(input) to determine the water bath heat capacityduring calibration and the input energy of the ignition of the H₂O arcplasma was given by the formulae E_(input)=1/2C(V_(i) ²−V_(f) ²) whereinV_(i) and V_(f) are the initial and final voltages, before and afterdischarge of the capacitors, respectively. The voltage was measuredusing a NIST traceable calibrated Fluke 45 digital voltmeter afterattenuating the signal by voltage divider to within the instrument'srange.

The heat capacity was determined by heating the bath with a dischargecell of the same heat capacity and displacement that did not produce anarc plasma. The calibrated heat capacity of the calorimeter and arcplasma apparatus was determined to be 10,678 J/° K. The initial andfinal voltages of the capacitors with discharge to cause H₂O arc plasmawere 3.051 kV and 0.600 kV, respectively, corresponding to an inputenergy of 286.4 J. The total output energy calculated for thecalorimetry thermal response to the input energy and the energy releasedfrom the ignited H₂O arc plasma using the calibrated heat capacity was533.9 J. By subtracting the input energy, the net energy was 247.5 J,released in the formation of hydrinos.

1-185. (canceled)
 186. A method of generating power, comprising:delivering an amount of fuel to a fuel loading region, wherein the fuelloading region is located among a plurality of electrodes; wherein thefuel comprises a source of nascent H2O, a source of atomic hydrogen, anda conductor or conductive matrix; igniting the fuel by flowing a currentof at least about 2,000 A/cm² through the fuel by applying the currentto the plurality of electrodes to produce at least one of plasma, light,and heat; receiving at least a portion of the plasma in aplasma-to-electric converter; converting the plasma to a different formof power using the plasma-to-electric converter; and outputting thedifferent form of power.
 187. The method of claim 186 further comprisingremoving an amount of fuel byproduct produced from the igniting step andregenerating at least a portion of the fuel byproduct.
 188. The methodof claim 186 further comprising removing at least a portion of the heatproduced by the igniting step.
 189. The method of claim 186 whereinoutputting the different form of power includes delivering the power toan external load.
 190. The method of claim 186 wherein outputting thedifferent form of power includes delivering the power to a storagedevice.
 191. The method of claim 186 wherein outputting the differentform of power includes delivering a portion of the power to theplurality of electrodes in a subsequent igniting step.
 192. A powergeneration system, comprising: an electrical power source of at leastabout 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein theplurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, areelectrically connected to the electrical power source, are configured toreceive a current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the pluralityof electrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; anda plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convert plasmagenerated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.193. A power generation system, comprising: an electrical power sourceof at least about 2,000 A/cm²; a plurality of spaced apart pairs ofelectrodes, wherein the pair of electrodes at least partially surround afuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, areconfigured to receive a current to ignite the fuel, and at least one ofthe plurality of electrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for movingthe fuel; and a plasma-to-electric power converter configured to convertplasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form ofpower.
 194. The power generation system of claim 193 further comprising:an output power conditioner for altering a quality of the powerconverted by the plasma-to-electric power converter; and one or moreoutput power terminals for outputting the power conditioned by theoutput power conditioner.
 195. The power generation system of claim 193wherein the power generation system includes two electrodes and both ofthe electrodes are moveable relative to each other to allow the deliverymechanism to move the fuel.
 196. The power generation system of claim193, wherein for at least one of the pairs of electrodes, the electrodesare moveable relative to each other to allow the delivery mechanism todeliver a fuel to the fuel loading region. 197-400. (canceled)